


♦ 




Hass JTK 21 4 - 

Book »H 7 ia&LEL 

Copyright N?__ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




































✓ 



THE NATIONAL CAPITOL, WASHINGTON 
























ELEMENTARY 
COMMUNITY CIVICS 

Oklahoma Edition 

V 

BY 

R. O. HUGHES 

PEABODY HIGH SCHOOL, PITTSBURGH 




ALLYN AND BACON 
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO 



COPYRIGHT, 1922 AND 1924, BY 

R. 0. HUGHES 


R. A. E. 



NOV 2 4 *24 


©Cl A 80 79 40 

XO | 


PREFACE 


It is generally agreed to-day that the main reason for the 
existence of schools is to help our pupils to become good 
citizens. Our schools teach the three R’s because every¬ 
body needs these tools in order to act intelligently in his re¬ 
lations with his fellow men. It is no less important for the 
pupil to learn that his life must be lived in close association 
with his fellow men and to profit by the experience of 
human beings in regard to these relations. 

President Wilson, in sounding the slogan, “The world 
must be made safe for democracy,” set people to thinking 
deeply about the elements which make the world unsafe. 

In spite of the wonderful and gratifying increase in the 
number of pupils who go on to our high schools, it is un¬ 
fortunately true that the great majority of school children 
never get beyond the grammar grades. If an intense civic 
consciousness is to be developed in our children, we must 
be sure that those below high school age have a chance to 
think and study about their social relationships. And, if 
they do go into the high school or beyond, these early 
lessons will serve them well as a foundation for further 
study. 

So this book has been written with the hope of appealing 
particularly to our pupils of junior high school age—the 
years just below the high school. Extensive use has been 
made of outlines and courses of study prepared by experts 
in this field throughout the United States. To the makers 
of these outlines, the author is indebted for countless help¬ 
ful suggestions. 

iii 


IV 


Preface 


Some teachers may find it convenient or desirable to take 
up the topics in an order differing from that followed in the 
book. The arrangement of topics allows ready adjustment 
to any desirable changes. If the community civics course 
is to be followed by a course in vocational or economic 
civics, teachers will doubtless prefer to omit some of the 
topics of Chapters VII and VIII of this book. 

The author hopes that this work will help our younger 
pupils to get started along lines of sound thinking and ef¬ 
fective action in all the matters that concern our common 
life. Teachers who are engaged day by day in inspiring 
high ideals and lofty impulses in the hearts of the young 
folk whom they meet will feel that they have a task calling 
for the best that is in them and promising results of infinite 
worth. Theodore Roosevelt said: "We, here in America, 
hold in our hands the fate of the world, the hope of coming 
years. And shame and disgrace will be ours if in our eyes 
the light of high resolve is dimmed, if we trail in the dust 
the golden hopes of men.” 


Pittsburgh, iy23. 


R. 0. H. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I. THE CITIZEN IN THE COMMUNITY 

PAGE 

Ourselves and Other People. 1 

The First Community We Know. 4 

Other Communities Closely Related to Us. 5 

The Beginnings of a Pioneer Settlement. 8 

How Communites Grow.13 

Political Communities.20 

Things Necessary in a Political Community.21 

Who are Citizens?.23 

How a Foreigner Becomes a Citizen.24 

What the Community Does for Its Citizens.27 

What the Citizen Owes His Community .28 

Questions.29 

Themes and Exercises.30 

CHAPTER II. GUARDING THE PEOPLE’S HEALTH 

Conditions Necessary for Good Health.31 

Why Health Must Be Guarded.32 

How Pure Air Is Obtained.33 

Where Our Water Comes From.35 

Purifying Water.35 

Drains and Sewers.37 

Where Our Food Comes From.40 

Helping the Farmer Feed Us.41 

Feeding a City.44 

Living Conditions at Home.47 

How People Regard Disease.49 

How Disease Is Controlled.50 

Promoting Individual Health.52 

“Prohibition” Laws.54 

Caring for the Health of Workers.55 

Keeping the Community Clean.58 

What Our Government Does for Health.60 

What Private Citizens May Do.61 

Questions.63 

Themes and Exercises.63 

v 



































71 


Contents 


CHAPTER III. PROTECTING LIFE AND PROPERTY 

PAGE 

Making Us Feel Safe .65 

The Awful Cost of Carelessness.66 

How Fires May Be Prevented.68 

Putting Out Fires.71 

Fire Insurance.73 

Dangers to Life and Limb . •.74 

Protecting Travelers.75 

Preventing Fraud and Dishonesty .79 

Protection from Natural Misfortunes.81 

Catching Law-breakers.83 

What a Policeman Does.84 

Managing Police and Fire Departments.85 

Unusual Disturbances.86 

Protection from Foreign Enemies.87 

Our Army and Navy.87 

Movements for Peace among Nations .90 

Public Agencies to Protect Life and Property.91 

What the Citizen Can Do.92 

Questions.94 

Themes and Exercises . 94 

CHAPTER IV. TRAINING THE GROWING CITIZEN 

Why We Should Want to Be Educated. 97 

Why We Have Public Schools.98 

How Our Schools Are Organized.100 

Laws about School Attendance.102 

How the Schools Are Supported.104 

School Buildings—Good and Bad . 105 

Making the Schools Most Useful.106 

What Should We Teach in the Schools?.108 

How They Do It in Other Countries ..Ill 

Private Institutions for Education.113 

Educational Agencies Outside the Schools?.117 

Libraries and How They Are Maintained.117 

Newspapers and Magazines.120 

Public Educational Agencies. 124 

The Responsibility of the Citizen ..124 

Questions. 128 

Themes and Exercises ... , 128 





































Contents vii 

CHAPTER V. PROVIDING RECREATION 

PAGE 

What Is Recreation?.130 

Who Needs Recreation? .131 

Places to Play . •.133 

Parks and Their Services.137 

The National Parks.138 

Recreation for the Mind.138 

Private Agencies for Recreation.139 

Travel and Its Value.141 

The “Movies” and Their Effects.142 

Social Settlements.143 

Using Our Leisure Rightly.144 

Who Shall Be Responsible? .149 

Questions.151 

Themes and Exercises.151 

CHAPTER VI. PLANNING THE COMMUNITY 

Cities Planned and Not Planned*.152 

The Objects of Community Planning.154 

Planning in Smaller Communities. .155 

Difficulties to Overcome.156 

Civic Centers.158 

Constructing Streets and Highways.159’ 

Street Lighting.164 

“The City Beautiful”.166 

Trees and Parkways.167 

Unsightly Places.168 

Buildings and Their Appearance.171 

City Zones.171 

Locating Railroads and Bridges.172 

Unnecessary Noise.175 

Smoke Regulation.176 

Who Is Responsible?.177 

Questions.180 

Themes and Exercises ..180 

CHAPTER VII. TRADE, TRAVEL, AND NEWS 

Conveniences Our Forefathers Did Not Know.182 

What Modern Facilities’Have Done for Us ...... 182 

The First Real Highways.187 

Sailboats and Steamboats.188 

Canals .189 





































viii Contents 

PAGE 

The Railroads and Their Expansion.190 

Improvements in the Railroad.191 

Street Railways and Interurban Lines.193 

Keeping Railroads as Our Servants.195 

Problems of Public Utilities To-day.197 

The Passenger Car and the Motor Truck.201 

Travel in the Air.202 

Opportunities for Water Traffic. ..203 

The Postal Service.205 

The Telegraph and Telephone.209 

Collecting and Distributing News.211 

Responsibility of Good Service.213 

The Movements of Our People.215 

Incomers from Abroad.217 

Questions.219 

Themes and Exercises.220 

CHAPTER VIII. LAYING UP WEALTH 

What Does It Mean to Be Wealthy?.221 

Why Do We Want Wealth?.222 

Public Wealth and Private Wealth.223 

The Process of Getting Wealth.224 

Community Organizations to Encourage Industry .... 226 

How the Government Encourages Industry.229 

Conveniences of Trade.235 

Restrictions on Workers.238 

Problems That Wealth Brings.241 

Relations of the Employer and Employee ...... 245 

The Farmer as a Wealth Producer.248 

The Right Use of Wealth.251 

Saving and Spending ... *.260 

Responsibility for Prosperity.264 

Preparing for Usefulness.267 

Questions.269 

Themes and Exercises.270 

CHAPTER IX. CARING FOR THE UNFORTUNATE 

Those Who Need Help.271 

Why Some People Are Poor.271 

How Shall They Be Helped?.272 

Private Agencies for Relief.274 

Public Agencies for Relief.276 






































Contents ix 

PAGE 

The Blind and the Deaf.278 

The Sick and the Crippled.280 

The Insane.282 

The Feeble Minded .283 

Those Who Are Unwilling to Work.284 

How the Responsibility is Distributed.284 

Questions.287 

Themes and Exercises.287 

CHAPTER X. PROMOTING RIGHT LIVING 

What Can the Community Do Through Its Government? . 289 

Churches and Their Teachings.291 

Churches and the Government.293 

Other Private Agencies for Moral Betterment.294 

Moral Teaching in the Schools .295 

Why People Do Wrong.296 

How the Courts Help to Assure Justice Between People . . 297 

How. the*Courts Deal with Law Breakers.299 

Wrong Doers Who Try to Escape.301 

How Criminals Used to Be Treated.301 

Modern Ideas about Dealing with Criminals.303 

Young Criminals .306 

Safeguards for Innocent People .307 

Are There Different Standards of Right?.308 

How Should We Act toward Other People?.310 

How Should We Act toward the Government?.312 

A Survey of Our Judicial System . 312 

Executive Officers Who Aid the Courts.318 

Your Responsibility and Mine.320 

Questions.322 

Themes and Exercises.323 


CHAPTER XI. SOME AMERICAN IDEAS ABOUT 
GOVERNMENT 


Majority.Rule.325 

The Rights of the Minority.329 

Government by Representatives.330 

The Federal Idea .332 

Making New States.334 

Territories 335 

































X 


Contents 


PAGE 

Possessions.336 

The Departments of Government.337 

Checks and Balances.338 

The Importance of a Constitution. 338 

What a Constitution Contains. 339 

How Our Constitution Is Amended. 341 

How Other Governments Differ from Ours.341 

The Cabinet System.343 

State Constitutions.344 

Subdivisions of States.346 

Special Problems of City Government.348 

Our Relation to Other Countries.349 

Arbitration.352 

The League of Nations.352 

Questions.354 

Themes and Exercises.355 

CHAPTER XII. LAW-MAKING AND LAW-ENFORCING 

What Is a Law? .356 

How Laws May Be Suggested.357 

Our National Law-Making Body.360 

The Part of Committees in Law-Making.363 

Stops in Passing a Bill.364 

Agencies for Enforcing Laws.366 

The President’s Part in Government.369 

The Cabinet.373 

The Work of the Administrative Departments.374 

Testing a Law.378 

Kinds of Laws That Congress May Make.378 

Laws That Our Constitution Forbids. ,380 

Law-making in States.382 

Administering State Laws.384 

Maintaining the Nation’s Authority.385 

Local Law-making.386 

Administering Local Laws.388 

Law-Making by the People.390 

Removing Unworthy Officials.393 

Getting Good Government.394 

Questions . 397 

Themes and Exercises . 398 







































Contents xi 

CHAPTER XIII. VOTING 

PAGE 

Why Voting Is Important. 399 

Who May Vote.. 400 

Voting by Ballot.401 

Forms of Ballots.402 

How Names Are Put on the Ballot.. 404 

When Officers Are Chosen.405 

Electing a President .406 

How Parties Are Managed.410 

Political Campaigns.411 

Bad Effects of Parties.413 

Making Parties Useful.414 

The Short Ballot Idea.41 k 

Getting Representation for All Parties.416 

Non-Partisan Elections.417 

Making Governments Really Representative ...... 417 

Questions.420 

Themes and Exercises.420 

CHAPTER XIV. SUPPORTING THE GOVERNMENT 

Kinds of Support That the Government Needs.422 

Why We Spend Money.422 

Kinds of Taxes.424 

What Is a Good Tax?.425 

Sources for Taxes Used by Nation, State, and Locality . 426 

How Taxes Are Levied .428 

Other Sources of Income.431 

Borrowing Money.432 

Public Land and Property .433 

Budgets.434 

Proposed Changes in Taxation .436 

Supporting the Government in War.438 

Traitors . . . 440 

Supporting the Government in Peace.440 

How We May Show Our Loyalty.442 

The Good Citizen at Home.442 

The Good Citizen at School.443 

The Good Citizen in Later Life.445 

Questions.445 

Themes and Exercises ..446 




































xii Contents 


CHAPTER XV. HISTORY AND EARLY GOVERNMENT OF 

OKLAHOMA 

PAGE 

Early History. 451 

Oklahoma Territory.453 

Statehood .454 

The Future. 456 

CHAPTER XVI. ORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 

Distribution of Powers.458 

The Executive Department.459 

The Governor.459 

Other Administrative Officers.461 

CHAPTER XVII. THE MAKING OF STATE LAWS 

The Legislature.464 

The Senate.464 

The House.466 

Making the Laws.466 

Elections.469 


CHAPTER XVIII. THE INTERPRETATION OF STATE 

LAWS 


The Judiciary.471 

The Supreme Court.471 

Other Courts and Judicial Bodies.472 

CHAPTER XIX. COUNTY AND TOWNSHIP GOVERNMENT 

The County.476 

How Counties Are Formed.477 

The County Seat.477 

Tenure of Office.477 

County Officers.477 

Township Government.480 

CHAPTER XX. TOWN AND CITY GOVERNMENT 

Its Place in Oklahoma.482 

Town Government. 483 

City Government.483 



























Contents xiii 

CHAPTER XXI. EDUCATION AND WELFARE 

PAGE 

Educational Progress.487 

Indian Territory.487 

Oklahoma Territory.487 

Oklahoma State.488 

Common Schools .490 

Union Graded Schools.491 

Independent Schools.491 

Joint Schools.491 

Annual Meetings.491 

Revenue.492 

School Lands.492 

Separate Schools.493 

Compulsory School Attendance.493 

Census.494 

State Institutions.494 

Penal Institutions.494 

Charitable Institutions.494 

Fish Hatcheries.496 

CHAPTER XXII. PAYING THE BILLS 

Taxation. 497 

Limitations.497 

Special Taxes.498 

Exemptions.499 

Assessment.499 

Equalization.499 

Budgets.499 

Levies. . 500 

Taxes Due.500 

State Levies.501 

New Excise Board.501 

Duties of Citizens.501 

Increase in Government Costs.502 

CHAPTER XXIII. THE CITIZEN 

Importance of the Citizen.504 

His Rights.504 

His Duties.505 

Appendix . 1 

Index. 21 








































ILLUSTRATIONS 

The National Capitol, Washington. Frontispiece 

PAGE 

1. The Power Plant. 2 

2. Country Home in Winter . 4 

3. The Kenmore. 5 

4. What Passes for a Home in a Lumber Camp .... 6 

5. The “Prairie Schooner”. 9 

6. A New Frontier Town.11 

7. The Harbor at San Francisco .14-15 

8. A Western Village.19 

9. A Certificate of Naturalization.24 

10. Taking the Oath of Allegiance.26 

11. An Attractive Concrete Bridge.28 

12. Inspecting Meat.32 

13. A Model Factory .34 

14. The Chestnut Hill Reservoir, near Boston.36 

15. A Crowded District of Boston.39 

16. Cattle Grazing in the Far West.41 

17. Mowing in the Old Way.42 

18. An Exhibit at a Fair ..43 

19. Result of Dry Farming.45 

20. Filling Sacks with Flour.46 

21. A Bad Street to Live On.48 

22. Health Literature.50 

23. Inspecting the Immigrant.52 

24. One Way to Keep Healthy.53 

25. Good Advice for Girls .54 

26. Accident Prevention Poster.56 

27. An Unusual Kind of Work for Women.57 

28. Cleaning Up.59 

29. Distributing Ice in a Crowded City District.62 

30. Safety Lanes for Pedestrians.66 

31. Dangerous Fire-traps .68 

32. The Wrong Way to Dispose of Rubbish.69 

33. A Fire Look-Out.70 

34. How Not to Use a Fire Escape .. . 72 


xv 
































XVI 


Illustrations 


PaOE 

35. The Start of a Forest Fire.73 

36. Caring for an Unlucky Y oungster.74 

37. A Warning Sign.. . 76 

38. Doing Away with Grade Crossings. 77 

39. Tracks Leading to a Great Station.78 

40. Filling a Signal Lamp.81 

41. A Patrolman at a Signal Box.85 

42. State Militia on Duty .86 

43. Signal Men of the Marines.88 

44. A Submarine Under Way.90 

45. Inexcusable Carelessness.93 

46. The Little Red Schoolhouse.99 

47. A Consolidated Rural School.102 

48. A Corridor in the High School, El Paso, Texas .... 103 

49. An Excellent School Building in a Country Village . . . 105 

50. An Outdoor School Room . 107 

51. Practical Instruction.110 

52. University Hall, Brown University.114 

53. A Scene from a Famous Pageant.116 

54. Reading Room in a Great Public Library.118 

55. Getting the “Copy” into Shape.120 

56. Making Up a Newspaper.121 

57. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.123 

58. Turning Waste to Good Account.126 

59. A Good Time on the “North Dakota”.131 

60. A Street and Playground Combined.133 

61. A Fine Public Playground.134 

62. High School Stadium at San Diego.135 

63. A Flower Garden in a City Park at Denver .... 136 

64. The Stage ni an Open Air Theatre . 139 

65. Orchestra and Seats of the Open Air Theatre at the Uni¬ 

versity of California.140 

66. Mt. Tamalpais, California.142 

67. One Type of Moving Picture Theatre.143 

68. Another Type of Movie-House.144 

69 Unprofitable Habits.145 

70. A Scene on Boston Common.146 

71. A Recreation Place for Thousands.148 

72. Setting-up Exercises at an Army Camp.150 

73. The City of Washington.153 

74. An Attractive Boulevard.. , , 154 

75. A Wide Thoroughfare ., f 156 

76. A Concrete Highway in the Country.157 






































Illustrations xvii 

PAG* 

77. San Francisco Auditorium.158 

78. Wooden Block Pavement.159 

79. Brick Pavement on a City Street.161 

80. Road Construction in the Mountains of Colorado . . 162 

81. An Attractive Street in a Suburban Village .... 163 

82. Trouble for the Street Department.164 

83. A Beautiful Residence Street.165 

84. A Beautiful Water Front.166 

85. The Common at West Brookfield, Mass.168 

86. On the City Dump.169 

87. Billboards on a City Street Corner.170 

88. After the Garage Was Built.172 

89. The Point, Pittsburgh .174 

90. Unloading Freight.175 

91. Back Yards Can Look Attractive.177 

92. A Lesson in Cleanliness .179 

93. One Means of Transportation.183 

94. Luxurious Travel.184 

95. The Grand Central Railway Station, New York . . . 186 

96. The Aquitania. 188 

97. The Old and the New.189 

98. The First Locomotive Built in America ; 191 

99. An Electric Engine Drawing a Transcontinental Train . 192 

100. Long Distance Travel To-day.193 

101. The Sullivan Square Terminal, Boston.194 

102. Old Style Street Cars.198 

103. A Double Decker Street Car.200 

104. Constructing a Concrete Road. 201 

105. A De Haviland Airplane.203 

106. Vessels at Anchor in the Delaware River.204 

107. The Postman Collecting Letters.205 

108. Distributing the Mails in a City Post Office .... 206 

109. A Country Highway in Mid-Winter.208 

110. In the Cable Room of a Great Telegraph Office . . 209 

111. Wireless Station.211 

112. The Village Post Office, Sugar Hill, New Hampshire . 212 

113. Travel on the Mississippi Years Ago.215 

114. The Coming of the Immigrants.21*8 

115. The Village Store.222 

116. Lifting Heavy Materials.225 

117. A Room in the Ford Factory. 227 

118. River Boats on the Allegheny. . 230 

119. The Patent Office, Washington.232 




































xviii Illustrations 

PAGE 

120. Bessemer Converters .233 

121. Weighing Gold.236 

122. Operators in a Big Telegraphic Office.240 

123. A Rich Man’s Residence.242 

124. A Wealthy Man’s Gift.244 

125. Port Sunlight.245 

126. A Phase of Welfare Work.* . 247 

127. A Truck Garden in Early Summer .249 

128. Harvesting and Threshing on a Big Western Farm . . 250 

129. A Fine Forest of Yellow Pine.252 

130. One Example of Thrift or Wastefulness.254 

131. The Roosevelt Dam .255 

132. One Kind of Work for Women.256 

133. One of America’s Scenic Wonders.258 

134. Receiving Deposits in a School Bank.261 

135. Profit in Waste Materials.263 

136. An Attractive Outside View of a Great Department Store 266 

137. Making Garments for Refugees.273 

138. Distributing New Year’s Gifts.275 

139. Blind Boys Studying.277 

140. Good Fun.279 

141. The Main Entrance of a Great Hospital.281 

142. Epileptic Patients at Work.283 

143. A Dormitory in a Day Nursery.285 

144. A Country Village Church.291 

145. A Great City Church.293 

146. Under Arrest.296 

147. Diagram of a Court Room .298 

148. Taking Finger Prints.300 

149. Prison Cells.302 

150. The Dining Hall at Massachusetts Reformatory Prison 

for Women.304 

151. A Prison Workshop.305 

152. The Children’s Court Building.307 

153. A Workhouse Corridor.311 

154. State Prison, Windsor, Vermont.313 

155. The Most Powerful Court in the World.316 

156. Pennsylvania State Constabulary on Duty .... 318 

157. .A Boy Scout on Duty.321 

158. On a United States Torpedo Boat ....... 328 

159. Where the British Parliament Meets ...... 331 

160. The State Capitol of Arizona.335 

161. A United States Warship in the Panama Canal . . . 336 


































Illustrations xix 

PAGE 

162. Our National Capitol .343 

163. An Appeal for Cleanliness. 347 

164. New York from the Air.349 

165. Signers of the Peace Treaty of Versailles, 1919 351 

166. The Home of the League of Nations.352 

167. The Capitol at Washington at Night.362 

168. Interstate Commerce Commission in Session .... 367 

169. President Harding and His Cabinet.372 

170. United States Marines in Egypt.375 

171. Clerks at Work on the Census.377 

172. Hall of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives . 383 

173. The Battleship “Connecticut”.385 

174. All Sorts of Ships in Boston Harbor.388 

175. An Example of the Referendum.391 

176. The Municipal Building, New York City.395 

177. Registering Voters.401 

178. Part of a Pennsylvania Ballot.403 

179. Part of an Oregon Ballot.406 

180. A Presidential Nominating Convention.407 

181. A Campaign Meeting.412 

182. A Virginia Court House.415 

183. A Massachusetts Town Hall.419 

184. A Long Bridge in the City.423 

185. An Unpaved City Street.425 

186. Grading of a Street Completed.427 

187. Correcting the Tax Lists.428 

188. The Custom House at Philadelphia.430 

189. Lilac Sunday, Rochester, N. Y. 434 

190. A Chance for a Single-Tax Argument.437 

191. Soldiers on Duty.438 

192. The Arlington Amphitheatre.439 

193. Buying Liberty Bonds.441 

194. A Manual Training Class at Work .444 

195. An Object Lesson in Patriotism.448 

196. The Rush of the Settlers, April 22, 1889 451 

197. Oklahoma City, April 26, 1889 . 454 

198. The First Post Office at Oklahoma City.455 

199. The State Capitol.460 

200. Some of Oklahoma’s Woodland.465 

201. A Well-Built Road.468 

202. A Typical Oklahoma Residence.472 

203. Loading Alfalfa.474 

204. One of Oklahoma’s Farms.476 



































xx Illustrations 

PAGE 

205. A Typical Rural Scene.479 

206. A Typical City Scene.482 

207. A Modern Oklahoma School.484 

208. The University of Oklahoma at Norman .... 488-489 

209. Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College at Still¬ 

water . 492-493 

210. Stock-Yards.495 

211. A Beautiful Scene—Crater Lake.505 








ELEMENTARY 
COMMUNITY CIVICS 

THE COMMUNITY IDEA 

CHAPTER I 

THE CITIZEN IN THE COMMUNITY 


All are needed by each one, 

Nothing is fair or good alone. — Emerson. 


1. Ourselves and Other People. — We come into a 
room, some one presses a button in the wall, and light gleams 
forth from the globes above our heads. Did we make the 
light? No, the current which furnishes the light comes 
from the community power-plant, where many people are 
employed whom we have never seen. In order to produce 
the current, they must have coal. The mining and trans¬ 
portation of the coal employ many more men whom we have 
never met. 

Or, if we are not so situated as to have electricity, we 
may notice the same thing in using the kerosene lamp. The 
match we strike to light it was manufactured in a distant 
town; the oil was taken from a well, perhaps six or seven 
hundred miles away, and the lamp itself produced by work¬ 
ers who never know the men and women who use it. Al¬ 
though we seldom stop to think of it, there is scarcely any¬ 
thing we do, even the most common-place, every-day act, 
which does not show our dependence upon other people. 

i 




2 


The Citizen in the Community 


How did you spend last Saturday and Sunday? Did you do any¬ 
thing which you could have done if there had been nobody else within 
a hundred miles? How many things can you think of which a person 
can do without making use of what some one else has done? Is there 
such a thing as a self-made man? 

Since we depend so greatly upon other people and the 
products of their labor, how necessary it is that everyone 
should realize the responsibility he bears for the welfare of 
others! Suppose all the coal miners should go on a strike. 



Courtesy Duquesne Light Co . 

THE POWER PLANT. 


Several hundred thousand people living miles away are wholh or 
partly dependent on this plant, at Cheswick, Pa., for their light 
and power. 

The power-plant would soon run out of coal and could 
not generate the current to supply the people with light. 
If people did not cooperate—did not work together—we 
should have to go back to the old way of rubbing two sticks 
together to make a fire, and, because we should have no ax, 
we should have to break branches with our hands in order 






3 


Ourselves and Other People 

to get the sticks. If even one person stops doing his part, 
many others may be affected. 

It is really a question of team-work. The left half-back 
may be the best player in four counties, but if he refuses 
to back up the left tackle when that player can not stop 
the other team’s rushes, victory for his team is going to be 
very unlikely. And what would you think of the short¬ 
stop who expected the pitcher to strike out all the other 
team, and would not chase any balls which were hit? The 
principle is just the same in all our relations with other 
people. 

Will it make any difference to other people if a postman is sick? 
if a minister goes on a vacation? if an engineer fails to report for 
duty? if you are not at school next Tuesday? Can you give ex¬ 
amples of enterprises that failed for lack of team-work? 

There is a selfish side, too, to this matter of cooperation. 
The more we do for other people, the more they are willing 
to do for us. Besides, our own lives are made pleasanter 
and more comfortable by reason of our being with others. 
For a little while we may like to get out into the heart of 
the woods and live as people had to live before civilization 
came. But a few weeks of this kind of life is all that most 
of us care for, and we are then ready enough to come back 
where there are people, and all the things that exist just 
because there are people to use them. And when we go 
out on a camping trip, we usually want to take some one 
else along. Few people care to be hermits. 

Make a list of ten things in common use which would be of no 
value to a hermit. Make a list of ten articles made by others which 
even a hermit would find useful. Are farmers to-day more or less 
dependent upon others than they were a hundred years ago? Which 
is more dependent upon others, a farm family or a town family? 

In order that people may get the benefit of one another’s 
services, they live in communities. By a community 
we mean any group of people living together in a given 
locality, bound to one another by common interests, and 


4 


The Citizen in the Community 


subject to common laws. The “ locality” may be a neigh¬ 
borhood, or a town, or a city, or a state, or even a con¬ 
tinent, but wherever the people have interests and laws in 
common, there is a community. And by laws we mean 
here any customs or' practices which people regularly ob¬ 
serve, as well as the formal documents, drawn up in writing 
or print, which tell people what to do and what not to do. 

2. The First Community We Know. — Into one com- 



A COUNTRY HOME IN WINTER. 

There may be snow on the outside, but this need not interfere with the 
warm and happy life within. 


munity most of us come before we realize it. The home 
is a real community. All its members have many interests 
in common, and are subject to common rules or laws. 
Sometimes these rules are made by custom, and sometimes 
by reason of the desires and wishes of the father or the 
mother or of all the members alike. 

What are some of the things in which everyone in your home is 
interested? Should a child be afraid of his parents, or think of them 
as he thinks of his playmates? To what extent does the place where 
a person lives determine the kind of home life he will have? 





Other Communities Closely Related to Us 5 


The home gives its members protection and shelter. It 
teaches them to live and work with other people. We find 
here our tenderest affections, and obtain some of our no¬ 
blest ideals. In return, the members of the home surely 
owe it their truest loyalty and help. They must uphold 
the family honor, and 



each member must do 
his part to make the 
home happy and pros¬ 
perous. 


Mention some things that 
you observe in a happy 
home; some things that 
cause homes to be unhappy. 
Do you think the character 
of many people is changed 
after they leave home? In 
what direction? What does 
a person usually learn at 
home that he would not learn 
in any other place? 


3. Other Communi¬ 
ties Closely Related to 

Us. — As we grow in 
years, we come in touch 
with other communities, 
such as the school, the 
church, the neighbor¬ 
hood, industry, and the 

state. These are wider than the home but closely related 


THE KENMORE. 

A fashionable apartment building on 
Beacon Street, Boston. Would you 
care to live here? 


to it. 


Show that each one of these is a community in the sense of our 
definition of a community. 

The school gives us education and fits us to meet life. It 
teaches us to respect and obey authority. While we can¬ 
not possibly remember everything we learn in school, the 






6 


The Citizen in the Community 


training we get helps us afterward in whatever work we do. 
We should be loyal and obedient to our school, and support 
it in what it does, and do nothing ourselves to lower the 
regard of people for it. 

From our early years most of us become acquainted with 
the church, the Sunday-school, or some similar organization. 
Few people would care to live in a neighborhood without 



WHAT PASSES FOR A HOME IN A LUMBER CAMP. 


churches. In such a place the morals of the people are 
likely to be low. The church teaches us how to live rightly. 
It helps us to understand the moral and social needs of 
people, and how they can be promoted. 

A less organized but still very important community is 
our neighborhood. There may be no one person or body 
of people in charge of it, but it certainly has common inter¬ 
ests for its members. Of course we are concerned about 
the attractiveness of our own street or block. We want 
the street kept clean, and the lawns and trees kept in order, 
and the good name of the neighborhood preserved. The 






Other Communities Closely Related to Us 7 

neighborhood teaches us to live with others, and to respect 
their wishes and desires. 

Industry forms another kind of community. Almost 
every grown person must earn a living, and industry gives 
him the opportunity to do so. It also produces all the 
necessities of life, as well as the comforts and luxuries we 
enjoy. In industry there is special need of cooperation 
and working together. The strikes and dissatisfaction 
of which we hear and read, show that there is not enough 
of this. Each worker in an industry, whether he is an 
employer, a manager, or a day-laborer, should do all he can 
to promote the interest of his fellow-workers. He ought 
to realize, too, that the comfort and happiness of thousands 
of people may depend upon his faithfulness and honesty, 
and he should not for any trifling reason disturb the orderly 
life of those who depend upon him. 

The State makes it possible for all these other communi¬ 
ties to exist in safety. By this term we do not mean a part 
of our Union, like New York or Pennsylvania or Indiana, 
but the whole people acting together for the purpose of 
government. By government we mean the carrying out of 
the will of the people as a whole and the enforcement of 
obedience to the will of the community. Often when we 
say “the government" we mean the combination of laws and 
persons which we have set up as an agency to do this work. 

This agency serves us in a variety of ways. 

(1) It furnishes protection and establishes peace and 
order. 

(2) It does many things by which the people are bene¬ 
fited and which they either can not do at all by 
private means or can not do as well; such as furnish¬ 
ing education, protection, health, constructing and 
repairing highways, and the like. 

(3) It organizes for us what we may call political com¬ 
munities, such as counties, cities, and states in the 
sense in which we more often use the word. 


8 


The Citizen in the Community 


(4) It teaches us to recognize authority and obey the 
laws made for our own good. When people dis¬ 
agree about their duties toward one another, or 
when one person wrongs another, it undertakes to 
see that justice is done. 

The least we can do in return for these services is to render 
our allegiance and service. We should try to become in¬ 
telligent citizens, for only that kind of citizen can under¬ 
stand what our communities need. Then, when we are 
allowed to vote, we should do our best to put good men in 
office. And we should be faithful to those who are in 
authority, so long as they are honestly doing the best they 
can, even though we might have preferred to see some other 
persons in their places. 

All these communities are closely related. They owe 
something to one another, and each affects the others. The 
homes from which the children come may make or mar the 
school to which they are sent. The school, in turn, may 
influence greatly the life of the home. It fits the children 
to be intelligent workers in industry later and to become 
citizens who can think clearly and act wisely in dealing with 
the affairs of the town, the city, the state, and the country. 
The church sets up high standards for people to live by, and 
thus helps to make the school, the home, industry, and the 
government better. Over them all, the state extends its 
protecting arm, and one of them—the school—it actually 
supplies. 


Fill out a table like the following: 


How this helps 

Home 

School 

Church 

Industry 

State 

Home 

School 

Church 

Industry 

State 







4. The Beginnings of a Pioneer Settlement. — No city 
or other big community came into being all at once. Its 












The Beginnings of a Pioneer Settlement 9 

history is the story of small beginnings which developed, 
usually slowly, into greater things. To get a glimpse of 
the way this process often took place, look back to the time, 
a century or more ago, when our great central valleys were 
occupied only by widely scattered forts or trading posts 
at places which had some importance for geographical 
reasons, such as Pittsburgh, Detroit, or St. Louis. The 
same kind of thing which we will describe was going on at 



Sciiool-Honse. Emigrants to tlie West. 


THE “PRAIRIE SCHOONER.’' 

At least part of the family travelled on foot, while their goods 
were carried in the wagon. This picture is copied from an old 
school geography. 

the same time, too, in many parts of older states such as 
Pennsylvania, New York, or Virginia. 

Suppose a family conclude that they can better them¬ 
selves by going into the West to build a home. They load 
upon a “prairie schooner” all their possessions which they 
can carry, and start out, some of them walking a good deal 
of the way. At length they find a place which seems suit¬ 
able. They cut down some of the trees and brush, and 
begin the building of their log-cabin home, and the cultiva¬ 
tion of the soil. Of course they have to do everything 




10 


The Citizen in the Community 


themselves. They grow their own food, except the wild 
game and fish which they can capture and kill. They weave 
cloth and make their own clothes. The parents themselves 
have to give the children whatever education they get, 
and if they have formal worship, it must be in their own 
home. 

The father makes annual or semi-annual trips to the 
nearest settlement to get some of the things that he cannot 
possibly make. On these trips he may try to interest other 
people in coming out to settle near him, and perhaps he 
finally brings a man or two back with him. Ac length 
other families come, until there may be a dozen or more 
families within a few miles of each other. These form a 
neighborhood group or community. 

Now they begin to cooperate in doing the work of the 
community, and no longer does each family have to do 
everything for itself. Perhaps one man is a common 
carrier for everybody, and goes to and from the nearest 
settlement, either with his horse or mule team, or by flat- 
boat or some other crude river-craft. Some one else opens 
a general store. Another starts a blacksmith shop. If 
traders or travellers begin to come rather frequently, 
somebody will open a tavern where men and horses can be 
cared for over night. 

By this time probably a rude school-house has been built. 
Instead of receiving occasional visits from the sometimes 
coarse and loud-talking, but courageous, travelling preach¬ 
ers, a church is erected and a minister settled. A real 
village community has at last been established, and the 
government at Washington sees to it that mail is regularly 
carried to and from it at least once a week. 

Sometimes, however, a whole group of people would come 
at the beginning. Perhaps they would organize a company 
and send out agents to look over the new land in advance. 
These men would try to find a healthful spot, where there 
was good water, where the soil was fertile, and the land 


The Beginnings of a Pioneer Settlement 11 

not too hilly, and where perhaps there were mineral depos¬ 
its, or a stream that could be used for water-power or for 
navigation. The agents might send their report to the 
people back home, and while waiting for them to come, 
might roughly plan out the town. 

Here is the interesting story of New Sweden, Maine. 
As you read it you will notice that it is much the same as 
the accounts of many settlements made along the Atlantic 



A NEW FRONTIER TOWN. 

This is Calexico, California, on the Mexican boundary. The town 
was started in the midst of a desert on land irrigated from the Col¬ 
orado River, but though only a few years old enjoys almost every 
modern convenience. 

coast in our early colonial days, except that this time a man 
from America went over to get them. A somewhat similar 
history could be told of many another place. 

“Fifty years ago, in 1870, New Sweden—a township six 
miles square, of high hills and correspondingly deep valleys 
dotted with white farmhouses and red bams, each on a 
hundred or more acres, with amber fields of grain and with 
verdant plots of potatoes, with newly mown hay fields, and 
with groves of spruce and tamarack, beech and birch, 









12 


The Citizen in the Community 


maple and pine, a happy, prosperous community—was 
one unbroken wilderness. A dense forest covered all the 
land. 

“During our Civil War, W. W. Thomas, of Portland, 
Maine, was sent by President Lincoln to Gothenburg, 
Sweden, as a ‘War consul.’ Mr. Thomas became con¬ 
vinced that Swedish immigration would be good for his 
state. He went over to Sweden, secured a picked com¬ 
pany of colonists from nearly every province, held a fare¬ 
well meeting in a Baptist Hall at Gothenburg, and set sail 
for the New World. 

“The colonists were eighteen days on the stormy At¬ 
lantic. They disembarked at St. John, New Brunswick, 
passed up the St. John River, drove across country to 
Fort Fairfield, thence to Caribou, and at twelve o’clock 
noon, on July 23, 1870, the first Swedish colony, consisting 
of twenty-two men, eleven women, eighteen children, in 
all, fifty-one souls, arrived at its new home in the wilds 
of Maine. 

“As the wagon train stopped in the woods a little south 
of where the town of Stockholm now stands, the Swedes in¬ 
stinctively drew together in a little group around Mr. 
Thomas. Here in the shadows of the forest, thanks were 
given to God for his safe leading. There and then the name 
‘New Sweden’ was given. 

“The next day, the Lord’s Day, was given to worship. 
Monday the colonists drew lots for their forest farms, one 
hundred acres to each family. Tuesday morning the 
cutting down of the trees, the clearing of the land, the build¬ 
ing of log-cabins, the transforming of a wilderness into a 
garden of the Lord, was begun. It has gone on without 
haste, without rest, to this day, when one half of the six 
miles square is under cultivation. Homes have been 
established, churches erected, school-houses built, stores 
introduced. 

“From extreme poverty has come marked prosperity, 


How Communities Grow 


13 


Hardships have given way to ease. One thousand persons 
live in New Sweden—not a pauper among them. Three 
hundred automobiles are owned by the well-to-do farmers, 
some families having two or three, or even five. There are 
nine school buildings, nine teachers, and two hundred grade- 
and thirty high-school pupils. There are three churches— 
Baptist, Congregational, and Lutheran.” 

Suppose a company of thirty or forty people were shipwrecked on a 
desert island. Trace out the course of action which you think they 
would be likely to follow. 

If you have read the story of Robinson Crusoe, does it seem to you 
that it could be true? What do you think would have become of 
Crusoe if he had not found his man Friday? 

5. How Communities Grow. — As you think about the 
towns and cities that you know or have heard of, you no¬ 
tice that one differs from another in a great many ways. 
If you try to classify such communities into groups, you will 
find at least four varieties: 

(1) Communities of general industry, such as Boston, 
Worcester, New York, Cleveland, Chicago, and the like. 
Here almost every occupation that is concerned with manu¬ 
facturing or trade is either carried on or represented. 

(2) Communities of one industry, where one particular 
occupation stands out so much more prominently than any 
other that this community really depends upon it for its 
existence. The life of Gloucester, Mass., depends upon its 
fisheries. Shamokin, Pa., and Butte, Mont., would amount 
to little if it were not for their mines. Altoona, Pa., might 
not exist if the Pennsylvania Railroad had not made it an 
important division point. Gary, Ind., is a “steel” town. 

(3) Agricultural communities, where the people live on 
farms, or, if there are villages, they are simply centers of 
trade for the farming country around. 

(4) Residential communities, which are composed chiefly 
of the families of people who are engaged in business in 
near-by cities, or who have retired from active business. 


14 


The Citizen in the Community 


East Orange and Montclair, N. J., Oak Park, Ill., and 
Long Beach, Calif., are examples of this kind of place. 

Add as many other examples as you can to each of these kinds of 
communities. If you are acquainted with any of these which are 
mentioned here or other places like them, be prepared to tell the class 
what life in such a place is like. 



THE HARBOR-AT 
One of the finest 


Our national Census Bureau calls all places with less 
than 2,500 people, rural communities. Larger places it 
calls urban communities. When our first census was taken 
in 1790, only 3.4 per cent of the people lived in urban 
communities, and there was no place in the country with 
as many people as Fitchburg, Mass., McKeesport, Pa., 
or Oshkosh, Wis., has to-day. Now over half of our people 
live in urban communities. 









How Communities Grow 


15 


Some communities grow to a certain point and then stay 
at about that figure for years and years. Others are losing 
slowly but steadily, and some even have fewer people to-day 
than they did a hundred years ago. Others grow gradually 
but surely into strong centers of business and life. Still 
others jump into prominence almost over night. 



SAN FRANCISCO, 
harbors in the world. 


Now what makes the difference among those places? 
To answer this question we shall have to ask some more. 
We must look into the same conditions that the founders 
of any pioneer town ought to consider. Where is the place 
situated? Do its climate and other natural conditions make 
it a pleasant place to live in? Can one earn a living there 
if he is willing to work? Have its people been enterprising 
enough to provide things that make life comfortable and 






16 


The Citizen in the Community 


uplifting, or are they satisfied simply with existing? These 
are some of the questions which we must ask in order to be 
able to tell why a place is likely to grow or to decline. 

New York has a wonderful harbor. It is situated where 
it can be the center of trade with the great nations of 
Europe, and lines of trade into the heart of the continent 
were fairly easy to open up. Pittsburgh is at the point 
where two large rivers unite and form a great gateway into 
the West. It is in the midst of bountiful fields of coal. 
San Francisco is on one of the finest harbors in the world— 
one of the very few harbors on the western coast of our 
continent. New Orleans commands the water routes into 
the entire Mississippi valley, and is in the center of the 
cotton-growing section of our country. When one under¬ 
stands geography, he is obliged to declare that there could 
not help being great cities at these points. 

None of these four places can boast much about its 
climate. But let us turn to Los Angeles. Almost no 
frost; only a few days in the year uncomfortably warm; 
beautiful palms and orange groves and flowers! Besides 
it has great oil fields. When people came to that region 
and needed to have some place as a center of business, Los 
Angeles was ready for it. And so it became the metropolis 
of the Far West. 

Then there is Detroit. It is located at an important 
point in the Great Lakes region. It was destined to be a 
notable city anyway. But along came Henry Ford and 
other people who made automobiles, and it developed with 
startling speed. With almost a million people in 1920, it 
had become the fourth city of North America. 

Sometimes it is dangerous to depend upon one industry. 
When men first struck oil in Pennsylvania, about 1859, 
a number of towns sprang up like mushrooms. But the 
oil fields gave out and so did many of the towns. Many 
places in Texas and Oklahoma can tell the same story, and 
more will tell it in a few years. Virginia City’s silver 


How Communities Grow 


17 


mines made it famous in the early days of the history of 
Nevada, but when the working of the mines slackened, 
the town became a back number. 

But what do communities offer to their people beyond 
the mere chance to make a living? Here we have the 
reason why some of them stay small, others become small, 
and others grow. When there is only one family in a 
neighborhood, its wants may not be very great, and some 
of its wants it knows there is no use in trying to gratify. 
When a dozen families have moved in, they have many 
more wants, but if they divide up their efforts properly, 
they can much more easily satisfy the wants of all their 
members than one family could satisfy its own. 

When a community begins to grow, it wants larger and 
better schools and libraries, paved streets, good and easy 
means of travel to other places and communication with 
them, a water supply that is sufficient and safe, gas and 
electric plants, and dozens of other things. These cost 
money. One community says, “Never mind—we’ll have 
them anyhow. We’ll be enough better off with them to 
more than make up for the cost.” Another town says, 
“If we do this we shall have to pay more taxes. We will 
get along the way we are.” What is going to happen? 

It is the old story. As David Harum said, with bad 
grammar but with sound truth, “Them that has, gits.” 
Suppose a company wants to establish a new industry in a 
town. It will always go to the place which is trying to 
make itself better, to the place with well-kept streets 
rather than the one with streets that are muddy and full 
of holes, to the town where people enjoy living, rather than 
the one which people move away from when they can. If 
your father is asked to consider a position in another 
community, he will ask not only what salary he can get, 
but what the community can offer in the way of schools 
for you to attend, and churches, and means of enjoyment 
for all the familv- 


18 The Citizen in the Community 

Railroads have a very great deal to do with the growth of 
many towns and cities. We depend upon them to bring 
all kinds of raw material to the factory to be turned into 
finished products such as clothes, machinery, and furniture. 
They make it possible for thousands of people to live in a 
small area, by bringing in food for the workers in factories, 
stores, and offices, and for their families. The railroad 
business itself is a big undertaking. Almost 10,000,000 
people in this country either work for the railroads or are 
in the families of such workers. Not many of these could 
live in rural districts. 

Sometimes, of course, it is not the fault of a community 
that it cannot enjoy all the conveniences and comforts of 
other places. Windham, Vermont, has little chance of 
becoming a great center of population. It is in the Green 
Mountain foothills, twelve miles from a railroad. It has 
no coal or iron and not much water-power. It cannot 
afford a large library or expensive public buildings, and 
could not maintain theatres and baseball parks. 

There are thousands of places like Windham in the United 
States. Their people do not always realize that they have 
some opportunities and pleasures which the city can never 
enjoy. Many a city man, going out into the freedom and 
openness and pure air of the country, remarks to himself, 
“This is the life.” 

And the Windhams produce some of the food that Boston, 
New York, and Philadelphia need to feed their people. 
If the Windhams are allowed to decay, it will not be many 
years before the big cities are going to feel the bad ef¬ 
fects of it themselves; for the big cities can not possibly 
raise food for their people. Sometimes the rural com¬ 
munities might show more enterprise than they do in sup¬ 
plying some of the advantages and pleasures which the 
people of the big towns have. But if they actually can not 
afford them, the rest of the state and the rest of the country 
must somehow find a way to help the rural communities 


19 


Kinds of Communities 

have as good schools and roads and opportunities for re* 
creation as the cities do. “Bear ye one another’s burdens” 
is often good policy as well as a duty on the part of the more 
fortunate community. 

Perhaps we should observe also that some communities 
have no desire to become great industrial centers. Welles¬ 
ley, Mass., East Orange, N. J., Haverford, Pa., Redlands, 



A WESTERN VILLAGE. 

Tower City, North Dakota. Small villages like this are often a cen¬ 
ter of trade for the country for many miles around. 


Calif.—such places have plenty of money. They can 
maintain schools as good as the best. They have fine 
libraries and churches, beautiful streets and homes. They 
are near enough to large cities so that their people go there 
whenever they wish to. So these communities do not 
seek to have factories come—quite likely they object to 
them. When the land in their boundaries is all occupied, 
they will politely tell newcomers, “Move on, if you please. 
We are not ambitious to break any population records. We 
believe in getting all the comfort we can out of life and do 
not want to see how many people we can get in a square 
mile, or to dirty our dwellings with factory smoke.” 




20 


The Citizen in the Community 


Is your community growing? Why or why not? What induce¬ 
ments would you mention in proposing that some one should come 
there and settle? What kind of place should your community aim to 
be? Is it doing all that it could to reach its possibilities? If not, 
whose fault is it? (Don’t be a “knocker.”) What is the population 
of the five or six largest towns or cities in your state? Learn in order 
the ten or twelve largest cities in the United States and explain their 
growth. 

6. Political Communities. — When people are banded 
together with the idea chiefly in mind to organize a govern¬ 
ment and do things for the good of everybody through its 
agency, we may call that a 'political community. These are 
of various grades and sizes. Our nation as a whole is bound 
together under a government which makes it a great politi¬ 
cal community, and the nation is made up of states each of 
which is a political community itself. Then the states are 
divided into counties, and the counties are composed of 
towns or townships, boroughs or villages, and cities. There 
is considerable difference among the states in regard to the 
importance of these various local governments and their 
relation to each other. 

Perhaps you ask why we have so many confusing divisions 
among these local communities. One reason is that a 
government located at a state capital could not possibly 
attend to every local need, because it is too far away. Take 
for example the schools. Different localities need different 
kinds of schools. In an agricultural community the schools 
ought to prepare pupils to be good farmers, while in a city 
special preparation for many other vocations, most of them 
connected with trade and manufacturing, would be desir¬ 
able. While the state school department can have a kind 
of general supervision over all the schools, the actual opera¬ 
tion of them must be directed by people who are right on 
the ground. The government must be directly familiar 
with the needs of the people in order to be of the greatest 
use. 

Besides, it is good for the people to have experience in 


Political Communities 


21 


handling their own local affairs. Often somebody from 
the outside who has made a particular subject his hobby, 
such as constructing streets or managing schools, could do 
that line of work better than “the folks at home.” But 
if a community depends entirely on outsiders to attend to 
its business, its people will soon lose their interest in things 
and become unable to start anything for themselves. Local 
governments help to keep the home people in touch with 
the affairs that concern them most directly. 

Make a diagram that will show how your state is organized. 

7. Things Necessary in a Political Community.—Three 
things are needed in a political community. These are 
laws, officers, and a constitution. A law, as we use the 
word in this place, is a rule established by a government 
to guide the conduct of the people, provide them protec¬ 
tion or service, or regulate business. The purpose of laws 
is not really to limit the actions of the people, but to 
direct them in the right channels. People sometimes hon¬ 
estly disagree about the way things should be done and the 
need of doing or not doing certain things. So there must 
be some means of settling such disagreement and deciding 
what is to be done. There are also people who will not 
of their own accord do what is right, and such people 
must be made by threat of punishment to keep from wrong¬ 
ing others. 

In townships and villages the people who make the laws 
are sometimes known as commissioners, supervisors, or 
trustees, depending on the custom of the state. In the 
towns of New England, all the voters have the right to 
take part in town meetings and assist in making local laws 
or ordinances. 

In a state the law-making body is called the Legislature 
or the General Assembly. In the national government it is 
known as the Congress. 

But a law itself is worth little unless somebody executes 


22 


The Citizen in the Community 


it. Suppose, after the Prohibition Amendment had been 
passed, nothing was done to enforce it. Do you think the 
country would be very dry? Neither would it be possible 
for each individual to interpret and attempt to execute the 
law himself. Imagine what a state of affairs there would 
be if everybody appointed himself sheriff and attempted 
to arrest his neighbor! So it is necessary for us to have 
officers to execute the law. This work then becomes their 
duty. Other people should support these officers to the best 
of their ability, but very seldom should any one attempt to 
take the law into his own hands. 

In most cases there is one man who is the chief executive 
officer of the community and is responsible for seeing that 
the other officers do their duty. In cities such a man is 
generally called the mayor; in villages or boroughs, the 
president or burgess; in a state, the governor; and in the na¬ 
tional government, the President. Sometimes in counties 
or towns there is a board of commissioners , selectmen , or 
supervisors to do this. In a large city and in the state and 
national governments, there are several executive depart¬ 
ments under the chief executive. Many thousand people 
are sometimes connected with these departments in one 
way or another. 

What is the matter with the practice known as “lynching”? When 
is it right for a person not an officer to try to enforce a law, and how 
should he go about it? 

Almost every community has a constitution or something 
that takes the place of it, such as a charter for a city or 
village. A constitution is a document setting forth the 
fundamental features of a government and the principles 
upon which it is to be conducted. A constitution is neces¬ 
sary in order to provide a substantial basis for other laws. 
In the United States, no law can be enforced which is 
contrary to the national Constitution, because that Consti¬ 
tution is the supreme law of the land. If anybody makes the 


Who Are Citizens ? 


23 


assertion that a law is unconstitutional, we have courts 
before which such questions can be brought and which will 
settle the matter. The courts also decide cases that con¬ 
cern the relation of citizens toward each other and toward 
the government. 

It is seldom good for sudden changes of the fundamental 
principles or practices of any people to take place. There¬ 
fore Americans think a constitution should be a document 
which can not be changed too easily. Most of the amend¬ 
ments which have been made to our national Constitution 
were talked about and considered for many years. If our 
people really want to make a change in the Constitution, 
they can do it within a few months, but it is next to im¬ 
possible to make a change which the great majority of the 
people are not willing to have. 

What is the basis of the organization of your local government? If 
you wanted to make a change in this, what would have to be done? 

Make out a table or diagram that will show the names of the chief 
executive officers and law-making bodies in any of the grades of gov¬ 
ernment that have authority over you. 

8. Who Are Citizens? — The people who live in a coun¬ 
try may be classed in two groups—citizens and aliens. A 
citizen is a person who is entitled to the full protection of his 
government and who possesses certain rights and privileges 
not given to others. An alien is a foreign-born resident 
of a country who has not given his allegiance to it. 

Our Constitution says: “All persons born or naturalized 
in the United States are citizens of the United States and 
of the state in which they reside.” There are five ways 
by which a person may become a citizen. These are by (1) 
birth in this country, (2) birth in a foreign country of 
American parents, (3) naturalization, (4) naturalization 
of father—but this affects only children under 21, and 
(5) annexation—that is, the people living in a territory 
which is annexed to a country may become citizens of that 
country without any action of their own, if this is specially 


24 


The Citizen in the Community 

provided at the time. Not many people have become 
citizens of the United States in this manner. 

Are you a citizen? 

o. How a Foreigner Becomes a Citizen. — The process 
which must be followed when a foreigner wishes to become 




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A CERTIFICATE OF NATURALIZATION. 


a eftizen of the United States is called naturalization. He 
must first go to a court and declare his intention of becoming 
a citizen. In order to do this in his own name, he must be 
at least eighteen years old. Before he can get his final 













How a Foreigner Becomes a Citizen 25 

naturalization papers, he must live at least five years in this 
country, and there must be at least two years between 
the declaration of intention and the granting of the final 
papers. After he gets them, he is a citizen of the United 
States with all rights and privileges except that of becoming 
President or Vice-President. 

There are many reasons for the residence requirement 
and for the interval of time between a person’s declaration 
of his intentions, and his naturalization. One of these is 
to make it impossible to pay foreigners to become na¬ 
turalized, and to influence their votes in that way. Be¬ 
sides, we want to be sure that they mean business and 
have a real chance to become familiar with our govern¬ 
ment and our language and customs. When a married man 
is naturalized, his children under twenty-one become citi¬ 
zens also. Once, a foreign woman became naturalized if 
her husband was naturalized, but now she must make ap> 
plication herself. A woman may be naturalized in the 
same way as a man, but if a woman’s husband is a citizen, 
she is not required to make any declaration of intention, 
and is obliged to live in the country only one year. Chil¬ 
dren under twenty-one follow their father’s citizenship. 

Going through certain forms may enable a foreigner to 
become naturalized; but he must have not only the title, but 
also American ideals if he is to make a good citizen. It is 
not always easy for one to break away from his attachment 
to the “fatherland.” There are schools which teach 
foreigners the English language, and try to make them 
acquainted with our government and our ideas. 

These things must be done if the United States are to be 
a happy, progressive, united nation. “One country, one 
language, one flag.” But the example that Americans set 
teaches the aliens more than anything else. Do you think 
a foreigner is encouraged to respect a law when he sees an 
American breaking it? 

So many different nations are represented among our 


26 The Citizen in the Community 

foreign residents that this country has sometimes been 
called a “melting-pot.” But to speak in this way suggests 
that all will be fused into one common material. There is 
often an inclination on the part of foreigners to go together, 
and. live just the same as they did abroad, instead of ac¬ 
cepting the American ways. If you are familiar with a 



Courtesy Newark Y. M. C. A. 
TAKING THE OATH OF ALLEGIANCE. 


These men of foreign birth have been taking a course in Amer¬ 
ican citizenship and are now prepared to swear their loyalty to the 
United States. 

large city, you have probably heard of “Little Italy” or 
“Little Russia,” which seems much like a part of the old 
country. 

It is partly the fault of Americans themselves that 
this state of affairs exists. Many a foreigner is sincerely 
anxious to become a real American. But too many people 
look down on the foreigner instead of encouraging him. Do 




What the Community Does for Its Citizens 27 

you think that calling him a “dago” or a “wop” and con¬ 
sidering him the scum of the earth is going to induce him to 
mix with Americans and imbibe American ideals, or is it 
going to drive foreigners together more than ever? 

Does your community contain foreigners? If so, why did they come? 
Do they occupy a district by themselves? How do the native people 
feel toward them? Do the children of foreigners seem any different 
from the children of Americans? 

10. What the Community Does for Its Citizens. — We 
have said that it is government which makes communities 
possible. It does this by providing or promoting certain 
elements which make up the welfare of a community. 
Health is an essential to a comfortable, prosperous com¬ 
munity, and we shall see what the government does to 
maintain the conditions which make good health possible. 
In order to make progress, the people must feel safe and 
secure, and therefore the government must give protection 
to life and property. And if the people are to be happy, 
healthy, intelligent citizens, the government must promote 
the means for securing education, recreation, wealth, and 
right living. It also helps to care for the unfortunate, and 
those who are unable to care for themselves. And it under¬ 
takes to construct or to regulate the means by which people 
can conveniently go from one place to another, such as streets 
and railroads. 

It is generally admitted that governments may exercise 
what is known as the police power —that is, the right to 
undertake any means necessary to promote the health, 
safety, and general welfare of the people. Whenever gov¬ 
ernments can not do this, it is because the people have 
adopted a constitution that in some way limits the power of 
the government. 

Our national government is thus limited in some respects, 
because its Constitution permits it to exercise only certain 
particular powers. It therefore has to restrict itself to 
those things that are in some way connected with the powers 


28 The Citizen in the Community 

that are definitely granted to it. The schools in the states, 
for instance, are not conducted by the national govern¬ 
ment, but by the state or local governments. The na¬ 
tional government, however, frequently publishes advice 
and information about education, of which any state or 
citizen may take advantage. 

Make a list of five to ten things that are done wholly or mainly by 
your local government; by your state government; by your national 



AN ATTRACTIVE CONCRETE BRIDGE 
An example of what a community does for its citizens. 


government. How many of these things would be done at all if some 
government did not look after them? 

11. What the Citizen Owes His Community.—Some¬ 
times we are tempted to think that it makes no difference 
whether we do our part in the work of the community or 
not. “One person/’ we may say, “does not amount to 
anything.” But what would happen if every “one” said 
that? Though each person is only one, still he is one, and 
must do his part. 

It is the views and feelings of one person, added to those 
of his neighbor and of the neighbors of both, that con- 





Questions 


29 


stitute public opinion in a community. Every person has 
his place, and the community whose doctrine is “one for all, 
and all for one” is the community that is going to do the 
most work for its members and for other communities. 
Each individual should do his part to promote the good of 
the whole. 

The average citizen is inclined to think much oftener 
about his rights than about his duties, but he must recognize 
that he has both. My rights may be limited by another 
man’s rights. It is my duty to respect his rights, and his 
duty to respect my rights. 

Then a citizen has duties toward his government. If he 
is protected by it, he must give it his support. It may call 
upon him to pay money or offer his time and services to 
support it. If his government gives him the privilege of 
voting for officers, it is his duty to accept the privilege and 
make use of it. 

It is a citizen’s duty, too, to do his utmost to understand 
the great questions which his community has to deal with. 
He should try to find out how he can be of the greatest use 
in serving his community. And when he knows what he 
can do and has made up his mind as to what ought to be 
done by the community, he ought to the very best of his 
ability to do what he can to see that the community goes 
always in the right path toward better things. 

Mention some things which you would have a perfect right to do if 
other people did not also have rights of their own; some unpleasant 
things which the government has a right to ask you to do. Can the 
government rightly ask more of one citizen than of another? 

QUESTIONS 

Show that we are all dependent upon other people. Prove that 
team work or cooperation is necessary. Define a community. 

Show that the home is a real community. What are our obligations 
to the home? 

Name other communities larger than the home. What does each 
one do for us? Show that these communities are closely related to 
each other. 


30 


The Citizen in the Community 


Trace the experiences of a pioneer family in a new neighborhood. 
Show how a real community grows out of the settlement of one 
family. Give examples of communities that were planned in advance. 

Explain the four varieties of communities. Distinguish between 
rural and urban communities. Mention the principal causes for the 
establishment of communities. Give examples of each. Why do 
some communities never grow? 

Of what subdivisions is the nation composed? Why do we have 
local communities? 

Distinguish between citizens and aliens. Mention the ways of 
becoming an American citizen. Trace the process of naturalization. 
What else is needed besides this formality to make good Americans? 
Who is to blame if foreigners do not become good Americans? 

Mention the elements of welfare which a government promotes. 
Define police power. What governments may exercise it? 

Show that each citizen has a responsibility in his community. 
Point out the duties of each citizen. 


THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Story of Robinson Crusoe. 

The Boyhood of Abraham Lincoln. 

A Homestead in the Desert. 

The Founding of Our Town. 

The Industries of Our Town. 

The Progress of Our Town. 

A Visit to a Naturalization Court. 

“Little Italy” or “Little Poland” in New York. 

What My Community Would Be Without Me. 

Men and Women Who Would Be Missed From Our Town. 
Interesting studies may also be made of cities or towns in which 
any member of the class may have visited or have read about. 


THE ELEMENTS OF WELFARE 


CHAPTER II 

GUARDING THE PEOPLE’S HEALTH 

Health is the vital principle of bliss. — Thomson. 


12. Conditions Necessary for Good Health. — When 
can a community expect to be healthy? Some can boast of 
a mild, even climate, but such places are not common. 
Some are too hot and damp, and their inhabitants are sub¬ 
ject to malaria, and, if they are not careful, yellow fever. 
Others are cold and changeable, so that it is hard for one 
to be on guard against wind, rain, and snow. Lung troubles 
are common here. But there are some conditions which 
almost every community can have in considerable measure 
if it really wants them. 

Any community can establish rules for its people to ob¬ 
serve which will help to keep disease under control when 
it does come, and to make it easier for the people to avoid 
it. The community which does all it can to promote these 
conditions will be a far better place to live in than one which 
simply lets things happen. No community, however, can 
maintain the best conditions of health unless it has the help 
and cooperation of every citizen. A person who keeps 
his own property clean may be unable to breathe pure air 
because his neighbor’s back yard is filthy. But each in¬ 
dividual can keep himself clean and avoid unnecessary risks 
and exposure. Thus he will be more comfortable himself 
and will help to protect the whole community from disease, 
si 




32 Guarding the People’s Health 

Make a list of things that you do every day to help keep yourself 
healthy. Are there other things which you could add to this list? 


INSPECTING MEAT. 

Some kinds of meat, particularly pork, 
are the cause of sickness if they are not 
in good condition. This inspector found 
nothing wrong at this particular stand. 



13. Why Health Must Be Guarded. — You know that 
when you are sick you have no ambition to do things as 
they should be done. Perhaps you do not want to do any¬ 
thing at all. Now we 
have seen that the com¬ 
munity is a group of in¬ 
dividuals. If there is 
something wrong with 
one part, even a tiny 
part, of a machineit 
affects the working of 
the whole thing, and we 
take care to have it fixed 
right away. If, then, it 
is so important to keep 
the parts of a lifeless 
machine in order, how 
much more necessary it 
is to guard the health 
of the human beings 
who make up the great 
machine of society and 
industry! 

Health and its pro¬ 
tection can not be left 
altogether to the in¬ 
dividual, because every¬ 
body does not take pride in personal cleanliness, or try to 
keep away from danger. We cannot be unsanitary and 
careless and keep all the results to ourselves. What we do 
is bound to affect those who come in contact with us, and 
in order to protect these people, our governments pass 
laws to force us all to promote healthful conditions in our 
own communities. 






How Pure Air is Obtained 


33 


Why is a physical examination required before admission to the 
Army or Navy, before appointment as a policeman, a teacher, and the 
like? 

14. How Pure Air is Obtained. — Nobody can live long 
without breathing, or can be comfortable if he has to breathe 
foul air. Since pure air is one of the important conditions 
that promote health, our governments take steps to insure 
everybody his share of it. Laws have been passed, for 
example, which limit the number of people who may live 
in houses and tenements. Schools and other public build¬ 
ings must have a certain number of cubic feet of air for 
each person, and means of ventilation must be provided. 

Is your schoolroom well ventilated? Compare the system of ventila¬ 
tion used there with systems you have seen in other places. 

We used to hear much about the “sweat shop.” This 
was a place where people worked in rooms which were not 
intended for manufacturing of any kind, and where people 
of all ages, perhaps, ate, worked, and slept under crowded 
conditions. These are now forbidden by law, as are the 
windowless, airless rooms that used to be common. 

The factories which are being built, or recently have been 
built, seem from the outside to be nothing but a mass of 
windows. Don’t you think it would be much pleasanter 
to work in a clean, light, well-ventilated place than in a 
dark, dirty, and either stuffy or draughty room? 

Many places also have a law which forbids a builder to 
put a building on more than a certain portion of a lot. This 
leaves a little room for air, and in a crowded district this 
may mean much to those who occupy the building. 

In order to enforce these housing laws, the tenements and 
buildings must be inspected. If it is found that a tenement 
does not comply with the laws, the owner can be forced to 
change it so that it will. New York City has a tenement- 
house commissioner appointed by the mayor. It is his duty 
to see that the tenements are inspected and any violations 


34 


Guarding the People’s Health 

of the laws recorded. In smaller cities, however, this may 
be done by the Board of Health, a Bureau of Building 
Inspection, or some such agency. 

Cities with many factories using soft coal have another 
problem. Just how dangerous to health soft-coal smoke is, 
physicians are not certain. But surely to keep the air pure 
and clean must be more healthful than to breathe the 
smoky, “smelly” air that the furnaces used to give out so 



A MODEL FACTORY. 

The Shredded Wheat Company’s plant at Niagara Falls, New 
York. Every effort is made to have the entire factory light, airy, 
and pleasant. 

abundantly. There was a time when cities took a kind of 
dirty pride in being smoky, thinking that it indicated pros¬ 
perous business. But now many cities that have been 
smoky have passed ordinances requiring the use of “smoke 
consumers” (§89). In the end this is a source of economy for 
the factory owner as well as of comfort for people in general. 

Is your community a dirty one? Why or why not? Can any¬ 
thing be done to improve it in this respect? Why do people build 
tenements? Why do people live in them? Describe a desirable, 
or an undesirable tenement, if you have seen either. 







Purifying Water 


35 


15. Where Our Water Comes From. — We can not live 
without water. There are so many things for which it is 
used, and by which it influences health, directly or in¬ 
directly, that we will not take time to name them. Now 
where does it come from? 

The occupant of a farm or of a home in the country vil¬ 
lage digs a well somewhere on his land, or lays pipes from 
some near-by brook or spring. In some places “artesian” 
wells, as they are called, are sent down many feet into the 
ground and windmills or gasoline engines used to pump 
the water into tanks. But in large communities it is im¬ 
possible for each home to look out for itself, and great water 
systems have to be constructed by the community as a 
whole at a cost of perhaps millions of dollars. 

Chicago obtains its water from Lake Michigan, Pitts¬ 
burgh from the Allegheny River, Los Angeles from a river 
in the Sierra Nevada Mountains over two hundred miles 
away, and New York from huge reservoirs in the Catskill 
Mountains whence it is brought under the Hudson River to 
the city. To such cities the source of water supply is a very 
serious problem, because it is thought that even some of 
these great water systems will not be adequate for more 
than half a century. 

16. Purifying Water. — The water that the people 
drink must be pure, because there is nothing that is more 
dangerous to the health of a community than impure and 
polluted water. Besides, water that looks perfectly clear 
may sometimes contain dangerous germs. To get rid of the 
dirt and disease germs, the water used by a community 
often must be filtered. For this purpose cities and towns 
have filtration plants. 

Of course only the drinking water needs to be filtered, 
but since it would be too expensive to have two separate 
systems, one for drinking water and one for the water 
used for other purposes, all the water goes through the 
filtration system. 


36 Guarding the People’s Health 

The two types of filtration used in the United States 
are the “continuous” and the “mechanical.” In the former 
the water goes through two large reservoirs. It is allowed 
to stand in the first long enough for the sediment to go to 
the bottom; then the purer water passes on to the next re¬ 
servoir where it drains through sand and rock and is filtered 



THE CHESTNUT HILL RESERVOIR, NEAR BOSTON. 

On the hill beyond is Boston College 

in that way. The “mechanical” method is very much the 
same except that certain harmless chemicals, such as chlor¬ 
ine, or lime and sulphate of iron, are used. In this process, 
there is more sediment, but by having several reservoirs, 
they can be used alternately and cleaned often. 

After the water is filtered, there is the problem of getting 
it to the people, for in a large community the people could 
not possibly go and get it. Cities located on uneven ground 
often have to construct reservoirs on high spots into which 









Drains and Sewers 


37 


the water is pumped and from which there is sufficient pres¬ 
sure to take it into all the houses. For the purpose of dis¬ 
tribution, large mains are used, leading from the reservoirs 
under the principal streets. Smaller pipes lead from these 
mains under the side streets, and from these pipes still 
smaller ones supply each house. The pipes are put far 
enough under the surface so that the water will not freeze. 

In flat communities it may be necessary to erect a “stand- 
pipe/^’ This is an enormous tank for holding water, built 
high above the tallest buildings. Water is placed in the 
standpipe by means of powerful force pumps, and the pres¬ 
sure of the water drives it through the mains and pipes and 
into the buildings and houses. 

How is your community supplied with water? Could the system 
be improved? Is it better for a private company or the local govern¬ 
ment to operate the water system of a community? Is it better to 
charge a fixed rate for water or to have meters? Does a good citizen 
have any duty in regard to water faucets? Can you judge the quality 
of water by its appearance? 

17. Drains and Sewers.—Exceedingly important, too, 
is the disposal of waste matter. It is necessary for the 
sewage to be carried off promptly, because, if it is not, it 
becomes a menace to health by giving off a poisonous gas 
which causes illness of various kinds. Poor drainage also 
makes buildings damp and unhealthful. 

For the purpose of carrying away the waste, cities have 
underground pipe systems much the same as the water 
system. It may be carried in this way beyond the limits 
of the city and discharged into a river or lake. But this 
is not all that may need to be done, although for a long time 
it was considered sufficient. It is often necessary to purify 
the waste material before it goes into the river or lakes, in 
order that other communities on the same body of water 
may not have their drinking water, perhaps, polluted by 
careless disposal of wastes on the part of another com¬ 
munity. 


38 


Guarding the People’s Health 


There are two important systems of sewerage. These 
are the “separate” system and the “combined” system. 
In the former, there is a system of pipes called storm sewers 
which carry off the surplus water from the surface, and 
another set, called sanitary sewers, that carry off the waste 
from kitchen, laundry, and bathroom, called sewage. In 
the combined system, both the surface water and the 
sewage are carried away together. 

The separate system has some advantages over the 
combined system. The storm sewers can discharge the 
water anywhere in or outside the city, because it contains 
no impurities. Then the waste from the sanitary sewers, 
being a much smaller and more regular quantity, can easily 
be purified. In the combined system, all the waste must 
be treated in the same way. A combined system, however, 
is cheaper to construct than two separate systems, even 
though the pipes must be made large enough to hold all the 
water after heavy storms. This reason has induced most 
places to adopt the combined system, especially when they 
do not attempt to purify the sewage 

Sewage may be treated in two ways to take away the 
danger of its causing disease. One is to use the sewage for 
fertilizer. This does two things at once—gets rid of the 
sewage and improves the crops. Often the sewage from a 
large city is used to fertilize and irrigate the farms outside, 
especially in dry sections. 

Another way that is used in many large cities is this. The 
sewage flows into tanks where the solid matter settles to 
the bottom. Here certain bacteria in the sewage are 
allowed to work upon it, and then it is put on a drying bed, 
where it soon becomes harmless. The liquid sewage is 
sprayed on what are called “contact beds” of coke, or sand 
and gravel, where the bacteria kill all the microbes or 
disease germs in the sewage. Sometimes there are several 
of these beds through which the sewage passes before it is 
purified. It may then safely be discharged in any stream. 


Drains and Sewers 


39 


Country districts as well as cities may find this problem 
of drainage and sewerage a serious one. It used to be a 
mystery how people in such neighborhoods got typhoid 
fever and similar troubles. But too often the drainage 
from stables, outdoor toilets, cesspools, and the like, found 



A CROWDED DISTRICT OF BOSTON. 

Notice how one woman has made the best of her surroundings 
by growing an attractive little roof garden, while her neighbors have 
done nothing to beautify their homes. 

its way into the well from which the drinking water for the 
family or the cows was obtained. When this was dis¬ 
covered, the mystery was solved. 

To prevent such trouble, the use of the septic tank is 
strongly recommended and even required in some places. 
This is made of brick or cement in such a way that the 
bacteria in the sewage have a chance to act upon it before 








40 Guarding the People’s Health 

it can become a menace to health. It can be easily con¬ 
structed almost anywhere. 

Investigation has shown that the outdoor toilet is still 
in use on more than nine-tenths of the farms of the country. 
As a breeder of flies, and a menace to health and comfort, 
this could hardly be improved upon. To do away with this 
is one of the first improvements that ought to be con¬ 
sidered on any farm. In many cases the difficulty of put¬ 
ting in an indoor toilet is remedied by the use of the septic 
tank, so that there is frequently no excuse for keeping the 
old, unhealthful method. 

What system of drainage and sewerage prevails in your neighbor¬ 
hood? Do you think it the best that could be provided? What do 
you think of a community which allows the dishwater from its kitchens 
to run across the sidewalk into the gutter? Did your neighborhood 
ever have trouble with its water supply? Is it likely to? Your State 
University or Agricultural College will probably test samples of 
water. 


18. Where Our Food Comes From.—Shouldn’t we 
think it terribly inconvenient nowadays if we had to raise 
everything that goes on our table, and kill the animals and 
prepare the meat ourselves? When large communities 
have grown up, everybody can not farm and raise stock, 
and so the market comes into existence. Food from all 
parts of the world finds its way to the market. 

When a meal is prepared for us, the food represents many 
different parts of the earth. The meat on the city man’s 
table probably comes from Chicago or Kansas City or 
Omaha, potatoes from almost*&ny place ranging from Maine 
to Minnesota, oranges from California, bananas from Cuba, 
pineapples from Porto Rico or Hawaii, vegetables perhaps 
from truck farms in the South Atlantic states, the coffee 
from Brazil, and the sugar from Hawaii or Cuba. It sur¬ 
prises us to discover that the products of so many places 
combine to give us food. Even the farmer, though he 
can raise most of what he absolutely needs for food, likes 


Helping the Farmer Feed Us 41 

to have many of these distant products on hand most of 
the time. 

Make a list of things chat appeared on your bill of fare yesterday, 
and find out where they came from. 

19. Helping the Farmer Feed Us. — There was a time 
when people thought that all we had to do in raising crops 



Courtesy Forest Service 

CATTLE GRAZING IN THE FAR WEST. 


This is on the Coconino National Forest near Flagstaff, Arizona. 
Many cattle are allowed to graze every year on the National forests 
but their owners must take out permits if they have more than ten 
animals feeding there. 


was to put the seed in the ground and let it grow. Now we 
know that there is much more to farming than simply using 
the soil as nature gives it to us. It is very important, if 
we are to get the greatest amount of food products in return 
for our efforts, that we should know the kinds of crops that 
grow best in certain soils and the sort of fertilizers that 
will make the soil most productive. The farmer who uses 
labor-saving machinery and up-to-date tools will get much 





42 


Guarding the People’s Health 


more work done and find his work much less tiresome than 
if he tries to manage his farm without this kind of help. 

To help the farmers who wish to make their farms as 
profitable as possible, there is in every state an agricultural 
college or state university which not only gives courses in 
agriculture to men and women who are able to attend, but 



Courtesy International Harvester Co. 
MOWING IN THE OLD WAY. 

On page 250 see another way of doing the same kind of work. 


also will give advice to all who care to write for it and will 
send its agents out into all parts of the state to consult with 
the farmers at home. Every state also has a state depart¬ 
ment of agriculture under some name (in New York the 
State Department of Farms and Markets) which aids the 
farmers of the state in a great variety of ways. 

Frequently farmers’ institutes are held at which instruc¬ 
tion is given in ways to manage the farm. In many sections 
county or district fairs are held. Here the best pumpkins 





Helping the Farmer Feed Us 


43 



or apples or whatever else the farmer has raised are on ex¬ 
hibition. Prizes are given for exhibits of animals or poul¬ 
try, and the fair is one of the great events of the year for 
every one in that district. To interest the boys and girls, 
com clubs, pig-raising clubs, canning clubs, and the like are 
conducted, sometimes in connection with the public schools. 

It takes more money to farm this way than in the old- 


Courtesy Department of Agriculture. 
AN EXHIBIT AT A FAIR. 

In this exhibit the Department of Agriculture is trying to suggest 
the best means of caring for dairy cattle. 

fashioned style. Sometimes farmers have difficulty in get¬ 
ting hold of the money that they need to buy machinery 
or to erect a new building or even to pay their help during 
the harvest season. In order to be of service to the farmers 
by enabling them to borrow money for improvements or 
other special needs, the National Government has established 
Federal Farm Loan banks. The country is divided into 
twelve districts with a farm loan bank in each district. 
When the farmers in any neighborhood wish to form a 






44 


Guarding the People’s Health 

farm-loan organization under the supervision of this bank, 
they may do so. The members of this association may 
make use of the privilege of borrowing money to pay off a 
mortgage or to make improvements on the farm. 

Do you think a person who had failed in business in the city would 
be likely to make a successful farmer to-day? Is it of any importance 
to the city whether the farmer is prosperous or not? 

20. Feeding a City.—Big cities to-day are absolutely 
dependent upon the railroad for their food supply. If the 
supply should be cut off even for a few days, much incon¬ 
venience and even suffering would be caused. The milk 
problem in this connection is very serious. Most of the 
milk is brought into large cities from the surrounding 
country, and since thousands of babies and children de¬ 
pend upon this supply, the interruption of it would 
cause much distress. Sometimes, in case of a railroad 
strike, food has been brought into cities in trucks, but 
of course it is hard to get an adequate supply in this 
way. 

By how many different kinds of transportation may the food on 
your breakfast table have reached you? (See Chapter VII.) 

But there are many steps between the raising of the food¬ 
stuffs and the consumption of them. Between the wheat 
grower and the person who eats the bread are at least the 
railroad, the miller, the baker, and the retail dealer. In 
distributing some things there are even more people con¬ 
cerned. Take fruit, for example. It may be sold to a 
commission merchant in a city, then to a wholesale fruit 
dealer, to a retail dealer, and finally to the consumer. 

This fact brings up another present-day problem—the 
cost of our food products. When so many people handle 
a commodity, and each one makes a profit, of course the 
user of the goods has to pay a price high enough to cover it 
all. If only some way could be found of bringing the 


45 


Feeding a City 

producer and the consumer face to face, it would be de¬ 
cidedly for the advantage of both. Fruit-growers, dairy¬ 
men, and the like, have sometimes formed cooperative 
societies to handle the business better at their end of the 
line. Once in a while people in towns and cities have 
organized cooperative stores, so that they can buy goods 



Courtesy Department of Agriculture. 

RESULT OF DRY FARMING. 


In some districts where there is little rain much is accomplished 
by the methods used in dry farming. Alfalfa is grown here suc¬ 
cessfully and the hogs seem to be contented. This picture comes 
from North Platte, Nebraska. 


direct from the producers in large quantities and get the 
benefit of wholesale prices. This kind of thing is much 
more common in Great Britain, however, than it is here. 
In some cities the government keeps a public market where 
farmers or food dealers may have “stalls.” The price of 
goods at these markets is seldom much lower than anywhere 
else, but a purchaser ought to be sure of getting fresh 





46 Guarding the People’s Health 

goods there. Many other suggestions have been offered, 
but it is easier to see the evil than to remedy it. 

Ask your grocer or fruit dealer who is to blame if the price of food 
products is high. Find out also what a farmer and a wholesale dealer 
have to say about it. 


Courtesy Pillsbury Flour Mills. 

FILLING SACKS WITH FLOUR. 

It is well to have food products handled as little as possible while 
being prepared for market. The filling, weighing, and sewing of sacks 
is done in these mills by machinery. 

In order to safeguard the health of the community, it is 
necessary to have laws respecting the sale of food. The 
old theory was, “Let the purchaser beware”—if somebody 
cheats you, it is your own fault. But this doctrine has 
been discarded, and our government has taken a hand to 
prevent such frauds as the use of glucose for sugar, cocoa con¬ 
taining brickdust, burned grain or bread crusts for coffee, 
and oleomargarine for butter. For this purpose, laws have 
been passed forbidding the sale of such food, and forcing 








Living Conditions at Home 47 

food products to comply with certain requirements. One of 
these is the national Foods and Drugs Act passed in 1906. 
This prohibits the selling of food or medicine containing 
drugs or any kind of poisonous or harmful ingredients, un¬ 
less they are plainly marked so that a person who reads the 
label need not be deceived. 

These laws are enforced chiefly through the Department 
of Agriculture. The Bureau of Chemistry in this depart¬ 
ment tests articles that are sold in stores and markets to 
see whether they comply with the act of 1906. Any dis¬ 
coveries that the law is being violated are reported to the 
Department of Justice. The Bureau of Animal Industry 
conducts the inspection of meat in the stockyards at Kansas 
City and Chicago and other places. 

Since the national government has no power under the 
Constitution to regulate trade that is entirely within a 
state, the states maintain departments or bureaus to in¬ 
spect food products that are not carried from one state to 
another and make them comply with the state pure food 
laws. Barns and dairies are visited to see that they are 
kept clean and that the cattle are healthy. Factories and 
markets are also inspected and their owners fined if they 
disobey the laws. Establishments that keep meat, eggs, 
and the like in cold storage are also subject to special regula¬ 
tions. The local board of health or health officer has con¬ 
siderable authority in these matters, too. 

Of what advantage is it to keep goods in cold storage for several 
weeks or months? Try to find what the laws of your state are in re¬ 
gard to the sale of food products. Are they enforced in your neighbor¬ 
hood? Are goods exposed to dirt and flies? Why is milk sold in 
bottles? What is meant by pasteurizing milk? What do your state 
laws require as to the quality of milk? Is there anything that you can 
do yourself to make sure that you and your neighborhood have enough 
food and that it is of good quality? 

21. Living Conditions at Home. — Most of us spend 
more time at home than at any other one place. Good 


48 


Guarding the People’s Health 

living conditions for the people are therefore the first es¬ 
sentials of good health. On this account, every person 
should see that his home comes up to the mark in health 
requirements. 

A very large part of the sickness of a community is in 
the poor or slum districts where the living conditions are 
bad. When buildings that have been stables are turned 



A BAD STREET TO LIVE ON. 

Can you imagine a great city tolerating a place like this? And can 
you imagine anyone deliberately choosing to go there to live? Yet 
you could find many communities where such a picture could be 
taken. 

into tenements, and where people live in dirty, crowded 
quarters that are old and tumbling down, it is no wonder 
that disease obtains a foothold and spreads. Health 
authorities have actually been known to bum down a 
building because it was too old and dirty and shaky for 
anybody to live in, or even for people to tear it down. 

We have already spoken of the laws relating to buildings. 
These, to be successful, must have the cooperation of the 
people who live in the community. It is for us to see that 








49 


How People Regard Disease 

we keep our homes clean and free from flies and rats and 
mice and crawling things, all of which are important factors 
in the spread of disease. And what good are the windows 
which the law requires the buildings to have, if we do not 
open them and let the fresh air in? All too many people 
still sleep with the windows closed and even a fire going in 
winter, though fresh air is an absolute essential in preven¬ 
ting colds and pneumonia and other illnesses. 

Records kept by draft boards during the Great War show that there 
is fully as much ill health and physical weakness in the rural districts 
as in the city. Can you explain that fact? Mention some mistakes 
in habits of living which you have noticed in either the city or the 
country. 

If your family were going to build a new house, what matters would 
you expect them to consider in the manner of its construction? What 
labor-saving devices for the women are in use in some places? 

22. How People Regard Disease.—The attitude of 
people toward disease has much to do with its control and 
prevention. If a man who has a certain disease, and knows 
it, inflicts his company upon others, the result is that more 
people catch the disease, and whose fault is it? Parents 
often allow their children to go to school, knowing that they 
are sick, and expose all the other pupils to danger. Of 
course, all people are not like this, for some are very careful 
to isolate a sick person, call a physician, and then do all they 
can to carry out his orders. But to prevent careless, 
thoughtless people from injuring others, the government 
must, as in many other cases, take a hand. 

There is no reason for thinking that diseases will come 
anyway and that all we can do is simply to make the best 
of it when they do come. The science of medicine has ac¬ 
complished too much to excuse any one for holding such 
an opinion. What can be done with some afflictions, such 
as cancer or influenza, we do not know as well as we should 
like to. But when we observe how much has been done 
toward preventing or relieving such dread diseases as small' 


50 


Guarding the People's Health 


pox, yellow fever, and tuberculosis, there is reason for hope¬ 
fulness in regard to the rest. 

The death records kept in cities and states show that the 
highest average of deaths in proportion to the population 

is found in districts 
where education has 
made the least headway. 
Some of the backward 
rural districts, cities with 
crowded foreign sec¬ 
tions, and towns with a 
large uneducated negro 
population, like New Or¬ 
leans and Memphis,show 
a very high death rate. 
This is especially notice¬ 
able among babies, for 
in some neighborhoods, 
half of the children die 
before reaching the age 
of five years. 

Find out what the record 



Copyright, Boston Photo News Co. 

HEALTH LITERATURE. 

It is particularly important to cir¬ 
culate right ideas of sanitation in dis¬ 
tricts where the people are almost 
entirely foreigners. Therefore pam¬ 
phlets are printed in many languages— 
Italian, Yiddish, and even Chinese— 
giving warning of the danger of spitting 
and other filthy habits. 


of your community is in this 
matter. Could it be im¬ 
proved? Make a graph or 
diagram showing its record 
during a period of several 
years in regard to the most 
common diseases. Are there 
any special conditions which 
encourage any particular 
disease? 


23. How Disease is Controlled. — Every community 
ought to have a department of health, board of health, 
or health officer, to have charge both of preventing disease 
and of checking its spread when it does come. Very 
great power is given to such officers in some states. They 








How Disease is Controlled 


51 


ought to use this power courageously and wisely, so as to 
protect the people in every necessary way, and at the same 
time to avoid frightening people or inconveniencing them 
unnecessarily. 

The quarantine regulations are one of the safeguards of 
health. When a physician finds a case of any contagious 
disease, he reports it to the Board of Health, which quar¬ 
antines the person, and those who were in contact with him. 
The length and rigidness of the quarantine depend upon the 
disease. In chicken-pox, the person is quarantined, but 
others may go in and out of the house. But in a dangerous 
disease, the victim is entirely isolated, sometimes in special 
quarantined places, and only the physician and nurses are 
allowed in. People with tuberculosis need a particular 
kind of treatment, and well persons should be kept from 
certain forms of contact with them (§131). 

In case of a serious epidemic, schools, churches, theatres, 
“movie-houses,” and other places where people usually 
assemble, are closed up completely. Sometimes people 
are even prevented from going in or out of a town until 
they have been inspected by physicians. A whole state 
has sometimes been closed up in this way at one time. 

Parents sometimes say, “Charlie will have to have the measles 
some time anyway. What’s the use of trying to keep him away from 
them?” When they know their children are sick, they will let them 
play around as usual with other children. Do you think this attitude 
is justifiable? 

The city, county, or state government also cares for the 
sick who are not otherwise provided for. It maintains 
hospitals and asylums, and helps private charities instituted 
for the same purpose. Private benevolence also does a 
great deal, and so the cost of caring for the sick is shared 
by many people, none of whom feel the burden very much, 
unless the illness is long and serious. 

Most of this care of health is the work of state and local 
governments. There is, however, a Public Health Service 


52 Guarding the People’s Health 

in the Treasury Department of the national government. 
In great epidemics this agency becomes very active. It 
rendered great aid some years ago when yellow fever ap¬ 
peared in some of our southern cities. The Medical Corps 
of our War Department also made a wonderful record in 

Cuba and the Panama 
Canal Zone, in getting 
rid of yellow fever, ma¬ 
laria, and other diseases 
that are specially com¬ 
mon in hot, moist cli¬ 
mates. 

24. Promoting Indi¬ 
vidual H ealth. — But 
more important than 
controlling disease is its 
prevention. It saves 
time, money, and lives, 
if care is taken to pre¬ 
vent sickness rather 
than to cure it. To 
maintain good living 
conditions is a most 
vital factor in bringing 
about this end. There 
are some habits of life, 
too, which contribute 
directly toward good 
health. 

Exercise, for example, is very essential. It develops us 
both physically and mentally, and makes us more willing and 
able to work. Many schools provide gymnasiums. Time 
is given during school hours for their use, and instructors 
provided to teach children how to exercise. The schools 
encourage athletics too, from the grades to the colleges, 
because the authorities realize how much good the exercise 



Copyright, Boston Photo News Co. 
INSPECTING THE IMMIGRANT. 


Communicable diseases may be 
brought in by immigrants. This in¬ 
spector is looking for trachoma. 





Promoting Individual Health 


53 


does. Most large communities also support public play¬ 
grounds, sometimes conducted in connection with the school, 
sometimes maintained under some other supervision by the 
city or town. We shall say more about these later (§ 65). 

But in addition to exercise, we must have sufficient rest, 
or our strength will be taxed 
too much. Regular hours of 
sleep do wonders for health. 

We all know how refreshed 
we feel in the morning after 
having a long sleep. Then 
we need periods of rest dur¬ 
ing the day. Many of the 
factories and industries have 
rest and recreation rooms 
where the employees may 
go, and read or talk or relax 
in many ways. These help 
the employees to work bet¬ 
ter, and they relieve the 
nervous tension and pro¬ 
mote good health and hap¬ 
piness. Some factories 
arrange for a short rest 
period at the middle of the 
morning and afternoon work 
hours, in addition to the 
regular hour for lunch. 

Medical inspection has 
been taken up in schools and 
public places. Teeth and eyes are examined and defects 
reported. It is surprising how many children have de¬ 
fective teeth and eyes, or should have their tonsils or ad¬ 
enoids removed. Medical inspection is necessary because 
some parents either do not exercise sufficient care or are 
ignorant. Vaccination has done a great deal to prevent 



OPEN AIR BOYS 

make 

STURDY MEN 


Keep Your Windows Open 
Spend 2 Hours Outdoors Daily 
Sleep Outdoors If You Can 


Copyright, National Child Welfare Association 

ONE WAY TO KEEP HEALTHY. 
Mr. Roosevelt when a boy was 
almost a weakling, but life outdoors 
made him a powerful man. 








54 


Guarding the People’s Health 

small-pox, and in the schools a vaccination certificate is 
required. If more grown-up people, as well as children, 
would have a physician give them a thorough physical 
examination once a year, much sickness would be prevented, 

Why do you suppose so many people dislike to go through a medical 
examination? 

We have already referred to the many “big” things 
which our governments do to prevent disease, like providing 

pure water, assuring pure 
food, pure air, and the like. 
Sometimes there are special 
conditions to deal with, such 
as swamps and water tanks 
where flies and mosquitoes 
breed. These need either to 
be done away with or made 
harmless. 

Why do many communities pass 
“anti-spitting” ordinances? If 
your community has them, are 
they enforced? 

25. “ Prohibition ” 

Laws. — When a man, un¬ 
der the influence of liquor, 
endangers life and property, 
ruins his own health, and 
deprives his family of the 
comforts that would pro¬ 
mote their health and happiness, don't you think the 
government should take the same action as it does in 
infectious diseases? Just as much care should be taken 
to prevent harm from this source as to prevent small-pox, 
or malaria, or typhoid fever. But it took people a long 
time to realize this. In fact, they are only beginning to do 
so now 


7he A1 AMERICAN GIRL 

HAS A GOOD SKIN 



Agood complexion cannot be bought 
It must be earned by 

1. Cleanliness 

2. Fresh air 
y Exercise 

4.Plain .wholesome food 
" PAINT YOUR CHEEKS 
FROM THE INSIDE'' 


Copyright, National Child Welfare Association 
GOOD ADVICE FOR GIRLS 




Caring for the Health of Workers 55 

Our national laws now prohibit the manufacture or 
sale of intoxicating liquors for use as beverages, and it 
is the people’s duty to obey these laws even if they do 
not like them. We even added the eighteenth amend¬ 
ment to the national Constitution, regarding this matter. 
This was ratified in 1919 and went into effect January 16, 
1920. 

With respect to drugs, we had similar laws earlier than 
in the case of liquor traffic. In 1914, a law was passed 
prohibiting the sale of habit-forming drugs, except on a 
physician’s prescription. Doctors and druggists are re¬ 
quired to keep strict account of all that is given or sold to 
people, in order to keep unscrupulous men from becoming 
rich in this way. 

Since these “prohibition” laws were enacted, a notable 
change for the better is noticed in many places. Some peo¬ 
ple persist in disregarding them, and unless all the officers 
of the law do their duty, it is difficult to accomplish as much 
in this way as we might. Here is a fine chance for all of 
us to show whether we are good citizens or not. 

Do you know people who use patent medicines extensively? Why? 
What do doctors think of such medicines? Can the ordinary person 
safely prescribe his own medicine? 

26. Caring for the Health of Workers. — Not only in 
the home, but in the places where people work, should 
great care be taken to make the surroundings attractive 
and conducive to health. The schools, where children 
spend a great deal of their time, are usually well ventilated, 
light, and attractive places. Especially the new buildings 
now are being erected with a view to promoting the welfare 
of the pupils. Did you ever go into a store or an office 
that was so gloomy and unattractive that you were glad to 
come out of it? Then what effects would it have on those 
employed there? We have already mentioned the laws 
that have been passed concerning buildings, but even within 


56 


Guarding the People’s Health 


the law there is a wide range of things that can be done to 
make a place safe and attractive to work in. 

Formerly it was the custom to let workers in shop and 




ACCIDENT PREVENTION POSTER 


Number 5. 




ALMOST LOST HIS EYE 



This man usually wore goggle* 
while chipping. Twice they saved 
his eye from flying particles. 


Once he took a chance, chip 
flew into his eye, infection set 
in, he suffered intensely and 
nearly lost his eyesight. 


Hereafter he will wear his 
goggles while chipping. 

WILL YOU? 


I Cwttii; of i^npbutt'% btutu*! /iHnno** Ce. of Watwvna.) 


PROFIT BY HIS EXPERIENCE AND SUFFERING 



COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA 

DEPARTMENT OF LABOR AND INDUSTRY 

JOHN PRICE JACKSON. Commluim,.,. 


id/ 

idj 







S'SMi 


factory look out for themselves. If a workman was drawn 
upon a^saw and his aim or leg cut off, “Too bad,” people 
would say, and let it go at that. If it added to an employer’s 
profits to use arsenic or phosphorus or some other dangerous 





























Caring for the Health of Workers 


57 


chemical in producing some article, the workers in his 
establishment must be expected to take the consequences. 
Employers once hired women and children to work for 
them at starvation wages and for hours so long as to ex¬ 
haust them. 

But now we do not defend such ideas. We have laws, 



Copyright, XJnderuood & Underuood 
AN UNUSUAL KIND OF WORK FOR WOMEN. 


During the war women undertook numerous activities which 
they had never before tried. Here you see them engaged in some of 
the processes connected with ship building. Do you think it is 
wise for them to continue permanently in employments of this kind? 
On pages 240, 256, and 377 see other kinds of work that women do. 


either state or national, which actually forbid the use of 
some poisonous substances in manufacturing, such as white 
phosphorus, and restrict carefully the use of others, like 
arsenic and mercury. We insist that workers in such places 
as cork factories, marble works, and establishments where 
brass and other metals have to be filed, shall be protected 
by some means so that dust and fragments of the material 




58 Guarding the People’s Health 

shall not be drawn into the worker’s lungs. And we de¬ 
mand that the employer shall provide some covering for 
belts, saws, electric switches, and the like, so that the 
worker cannot be caught and maimed or killed. The 
hours of women’s and children’s work are limited so as not 
to wreck their health. 

You have heard of the “Safety First” campaigns, by 
which workers—in fact everybody—are urged to “watch 
your step” and not get into needless danger. Very great 
good has been accomplished in this way. 

Make out a list of “Safety First” instructions that would be useful 
in some large store; in a factory; on a farm; in a country village. 

What cases have you known where workers were made sick by the 
conditions in which they worked? 

27. Keeping the Community Clean. — “Cleanliness 
is next to godliness,” we have been told. Anyway it is 
necessary to health. Cleanliness in a community requires, 
among other things, the collection and disposal of garbage 
and rubbish and the cleaning of the streets. 

There are three systems of collecting wastes. (1) One 
is the license system, under which a person may get a license 
to collect garbage or rubbish from people and then charge 
them for doing the work. (2) Another is the contract 
system, under which the authorities arrange with private 
concerns to collect the wastes. (3) Still another is the 
municipal system. This is its collection by a staff of men 
employed directly by the city, under a certain administra¬ 
tive head. 

Garbage is waste material that will decay. It is carried 
away in wagons, which, by the way, are often not as sanitary 
as they should be, because care is not taken to see that they 
are covered, or that some of the garbage does not drop out. 
And they usually “smell to heaven.” 

After its collection, it may be disposed of in three ways: 
by dumping, destruction, or reduction. The first method 


Keeping the Community Clean 


59 



makes the garbage useful for fertilizing or for filling up 
hollows or for feeding hogs. In the second method, a 
process has been found which makes it possible to use the 
garbage for fuel in furnaces without causing any offensive 
odor, and leaving only ashes as waste. By the method of 
reduction, certain fats are extracted from the garbage 
which are used in making 
soap and cheap oils, or 
even, it is said, cheap 
perfume. 

Rubbish is waste mat¬ 
ter other than garbage, 
such as paper, wood, tin 
cans, and the like, except 
ashes. It should always 
be kept separate from 
garbage. The rubbish 
collectors find all kinds 
of things when they sort 
it over, and preserve 
everything that is valu¬ 
able. Some of it can be 
used over again in mak¬ 
ing paper, and even the 
old tin cans are of value. 

What is of no use is 
burned. 

Besides removing 
wastes, we must keep 
the city streets clean. 

Sometimes the water from the fire plugs is turned on 
the streets and all the dirt washed into the sewers. Men, 
nicknamed “white wings/' go along many of the streets 
with brooms and carts and sweep up the dirt. Large 
wagons with a revolving brush are also used, but they stir 
up a great deal of dust unless the street has been wet. A 


CLEANING UP. 

This man might just as well have put 
his garbage and rubbish in some re¬ 
ceptacles in the first place as to wait 
until the policeman ordered him to do it. 




60 Guarding the People’s Health 

vacuum system of cleaning the streets has been tried but 
not very generally adopted. As for the sprinkling wagon, 
it does little but lay the dust temporarily, and make a 
better foundation for another layer of dust. An entirely 
satisfactory method of keeping the streets clean is yet to 
be found. 

i 

What does your community do in regard to the disposal of wastes 
and cleaning the streets? Could the work be done better? 

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method of 
disposal of wastes; of street cleaning. Do these problems affect rural 
districts as well as cities? 

28. What Our Government Does for Health. — Let us 
now make as complete a list as possible of the different 
agencies which our governments use to promote health. 
Many of them have already been mentioned. If they have 
not, and they seem likely to concern you in any way, find 
out what you can about them by personal investigation or 
by using some reference book. 


Local 

Government 


State 

Government 


National 

Government 


Health Officer 
or 

Board of Health 
or 

Mayor 

Department of Health 
Bureau of Housing 
Bureau of Sanitation 
Bureau Smoke Reg¬ 
ulation 


Department of Public 
Works 

Bureau of Water 
Bureau of Highways 
and Sewers 


Governor 
Board of Health 
Department of Health 


Department of Agri¬ 
culture 

Food and Dairy In¬ 
spectors 
State College of 
Agriculture 

Department of Labor 
and Industry 
Factory Inspectors 
Mine Inspectors 
Department of 

Farms and Markets 
(N.Y.) 


President 

Department of 
Treasury 

Public Health Ser¬ 
vice 

Department of War 
Medical Corps 
Department of the 
Interior 

Bureau of Mines 

Department of Agri¬ 
culture 

Bureau of Chem¬ 
istry 

Bureau of Animal 
Industry 


What Private Citizens May Do 


61 


Local 

State 

National 

Government 

Government 

Government 

Board of Education 


Department of Labor 

Medical Inspectors 


Bureau of Immigra' 

School Nurses, etc. 


tion 

Children’s Bureau 
Women’s Bureau 


Make over this table so that it fits exactly your state and locality. 
Learn the names of the persons whose authority may sometime reach 
you directly. 


29. What Private Citizens May Do. — We must not 
expect our government to do everything. Private citizens 
also may and ought to help to promote health by giving 
money and by service. Hospitals are institutions of great 
value that are sometimes entirely carried on by private 
citizens, though sometimes by the government, and some¬ 
times by both. They do a great deal of good in a com¬ 
munity by caring for the sick, both rich and poor. People 
can help them by giving contributions of money and some¬ 
times of food and other things. Many hospitals are estab¬ 
lished and at least partly maintained by churches. 

There have been times, as in the influenza epidemic of 
1918, when hospitals were glad to have people give them 
personal assistance. A great many women devote their 
time to nursing, which is a very worthy and valuable pro¬ 
fession. 

In many other ways one has the opportunity of aiding 
others to enjoy better health. In the summer, for example, 
funds are often raised to furnish milk and ice to those in 
need. Many children help to make money for these funds 
by giving lawn fetes, socials, and the like. They do a great 
deal of good in keeping up the health of the babies of the 
poorer people. 

Then there are things people can do in their homes to help 
the community. For example, a “Swat-the-Fly” cam¬ 
paign helps to make not only one’s own home cleaner and 
more comfortable, but the whole community neater and 


62 


Guarding the People’s Health 



more healthful. As we have tried to show, although many 
laws are passed to protect the health of the community, 
every citizen has to help. If every one would only keep 
himself and his little comer in good working order, it would 
be the quickest way to make the whole community the most 
healthful place possible. 

What has been done by your school, or by any society with which 
you are connected, to improve your own health or that of the com¬ 
munity in general? 


DISTRIBUTING ICE IN A CROWDED CITY DISTRICT. 

Almost any kind of method is used to carry the ice home. 

When you discover some condition in your community which is 
dangerous to health what ought you to do about it? 

In many communities a Survey, which is a thorough study of 
conditions affecting the health, happiness, and general well-being 
of the people, has been made. Such studies often bring to light 
conditions which most of the citizens know nothing about. If such 
a study has been made in your community, make use of the reports 
concerning it, as you consider the problem of health or any of the 
other elements of welfare which we shall take up. Find out whether 
amy improvements have been made as a result of the survey. Perhaps 
you can undertake something of the kind on a small scale as a class. 




Themes and Exercises 


63 


QUESTIONS 

Can a community determine whether its people will be healthy or 
not? Why is it important to protect people’s health? 

Mention some of the laws that aim to provide pure air. What is a 
sweat shop? What is the “smoke nuisance”? 

In how many ways is water necessary or useful? In how many 
different methods is water supplied to communities? Explain filtra¬ 
tion. By what means is sewage disposed of? Why is such disposal 
necessary? 

To what extent do we depend on other people for our food? Men¬ 
tion items that enter into the cost of food products. By what means 
is pure food assured? How are farmers aided in making their farms 
most productive? What is the Federal Farm Loan System? 

Under what conditions is it difficult to maintain health at home? 
What attitude do people take in regard to diseases? In what kinds 
of places are the death records worst? What public officers have a 
part in trying to keep people well? By what means do we undertake 
to prevent the spread of contagion? Mention the ways in which we 
can help to avoid sickness. 

What do we usually mean by prohibition? Why do we have it? 
Mention some other law's that are similar in character. How do we 
try to keep factories safe for workers? What is meant by “safety 
first”? 

Explain the systems in use in the United States for handling garbage 
and rubbish. Distinguish between these two kinds of waste. Mention 
the principal methods of street cleaning. 

What services do hospitals render? How may fortunate children 
assist others to better health? To what extent does the health of the 
community depend on you? What is a survey? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

Milk and Health. 

The War on the Mosquito. 

Our Enemy the Fly. 

The Water Supply of our Community. (Perhaps you can make a 
map to illustrate this.) 

Clean-up Campaigns. 

Our Local Stores and Markets. 

How a Bakery is Managed. 

Dairies and Creameries. 


64 


Guarding the People’s Health 

A Visit to a Slaughter House. 

Disposal of Sewage in Our Community. 

Well Water and Health. 

What Becomes of Our Garbage. 

Street Cleaning in ... . 

What the Junior Red Cross does for the Health of the World. 
The Scouts and Health. 

Places That Are Dangerous to Health. 

“No Spitting.” 

Helping the Farmer to Help the Country. 

The County Fair. 

Corn Clubs and Canning Clubs. 

Cold-Storage Laws. 

School- and Home-Gardens. 

Wasting Food. 

Food Supplies in War Time. 

Quarantine Laws in Our Community. 

My Experience in a Hospital. 

Healthful and Unhealthful Parts of Our Community. 


CHAPTER III 


PROTECTING LIFE AND PROPERTY 


Government is representative of order. — Buckle. 


30. Making Us Feel Safe. — Can you imagine the state 
of mind we should be in if everybody had to look out for 
himself all the time? When the Pilgrims first came to 
America the men had to carry guns to protect them from 
the Indians. When pioneer settlements began to appear 
in the West, the same thing was the case. If a man’s home 
caught fire, there was very little hope of saving it, be¬ 
cause there was no organized force to fight the fire. It 
would wear on our poor sensitive nerves to-day if we felt 
that we were in constant danger. We should always have 
to be on the alert, and could never have the rest and 
relaxation that we all enjoy and some of us need. 

To-day, even among the thousands or millions of un¬ 
known people in our big cities, protected as we are by the 
policemen, building laws, industrial laws, and many other 
agencies, we have a sense of security that is conducive 
to prosperity, health, and happiness. When we go into 
crowded business sections, we feel reasonably safe because 
of the traffic regulations which every city has. We do not 
have such a horror of fire, knowing that there are well- 
equipped engine houses within reach. And so we can go 
about our work with no fear of lurking danger to keep us 
from doing our best. This state of security is one of the 
first things that a government seeks to give its people. 

65 




66 Protecting Life and Property 

If the protection given by our government were to be withdrawn, 
what would probably become of our schools, churches, grocery- 
stores, or farms? 

31. The Awful Cost of Carelessness—The saddest 
part of a great deal of suffering and loss is that it does not 
need to happen. Hundreds of lives are taken every year 



SAFETY LANES FOR PEDESTRIANS. 

This view is from Cincinnati, but many cities have adopted a 
similar plan. In some places a person may be fined for crossing the 
street anywhere except at street corners. In the picture on page 
170 is shown a safety platform of people waiting for street cars. 

simply on account of carelessness. A little thoughtless 
act, like dropping a lighted cigarette, has caused terrible 
fires and the loss of many lives. Many of the accidents 
at railroad crossings are caused by people’s rushing across 
without looking to see if a train is approaching. Some are 
due to the watchman’s failing to lower the gates when a 
train is coming. Carelessness when working at machines 
has taken many lives and injured people seriously, and 



The Awful Cost of Carelessness 67 

pedestrians who are not careful on the streets often pay 
with their lives. 

No matter what protection the government offers, every 
individual must exercise care to prevent accidents. Per¬ 
haps we have the right to cross the street in front of an 
automobile, but of what use is the right to us after we are 
hit? Every thirty-five minutes, says the National Safety 
Council, a man, woman, or child is killed by an automobile. 
True, the reckless automobile driver is a curse to any 
community. The only safe place for him is in jail. But 
sometimes the accident is not the driver’s fault. 

Americans are perhaps worse offenders in this respect 
than any other people in the world. It is said that the 
buildings burned in this country in one year would line a 
continuous street from New York to Chicago. And we 
can only guess at the number of million dollars’ worth of 
trees that are burned down each year in our forest fires. 
Statistics for the leading nations just before the Great War 
show that fire destroyed in the United States in one year 
property amounting to $2.10 for each man, woman, and 
child in the country, if the loss were evenly distributed. 
The record of England on the same basis was $.33 for each 
person; of France, $.49; and of Germany, $.28. Now what 
was the reason? 

Perhaps it is because Americans are more willing to take 
risks about anything. Undoubtedly, too, Americans ob¬ 
ject more than Europeans do to having officers come into 
their houses to find out whether they are obeying the law. 
And more of our houses are made of wood. 

We are told also on good authority that in this country, 
if the average is maintained, 149 or more people will be 
killed in accidents to-day. More Americans will die from 
accidents this year than were killed in battle during the 
World War. And three-fourths of these deaths could be 
prevented. A man lights a match to see whether gas is 
escaping in the cellar. It is. A woman wonders whether 


68 


Protecting Life and Property 

kerosene will not make the fire bum faster. It will. A 
boy succeeds in getting across the street in front of a street 
car, but there is an automobile coming down the other side 
of the street. A girl warms herself in front of an open grate, 
forgetting that dress goods will burn. 

Can’t we do something about all this? Mrs. Leary’s cow 



DANGEROUS FIRE-TRAPS 

If a fire should start among these shacks at Revere Beach, it 
might menace millions of dollars’ worth of better property before it 
was put out. 

was said to have kicked over a lantern and set fire to Chicago. 
But who left the lantern where the cow could kick it? 

Make a list of “Don’ts” that will help you and other people to 
avoid accidents. 

What connection is there between the protection of life and prop¬ 
erty and the observance of the Fourth of July? 

32. How Fires May be Prevented.— As with disease 
it is better to prevent fire than to try to control it. For 





How Fires May Be Prevented 


69 



this purpose we have the inspection of houses and buildings 
to see that there is nothing to cause fire, and that there is 
no danger of people's being trapped in them. Fire exits and 
escapes are required in theatres and apartments and 
tenements. 

Many buildings now being put up are made largely of tile, 
concrete, or some other 
fireproof material. 

These greatly lessen the 
danger of a fire’s start¬ 
ing or spreading in the 
business district. In 
many cities “fire limits” 
are established, within 
which district wooden 
buildings must not be 
put up. 

It is coming to be the 
custom to observe “Fire 
Prevention Day” on the 
anniversary of the great 
fire in Chicago, October 
9. On this day all the 
people are asked to 
inspect their homes and 
see that there is no 
rubbish or anything that 
would invite fire. Doing 
this everywhere on one 
day tends to call the 
attention of the people 

to the fire danger more than work on the part of widely 
scattered communities would. It would hardly be good 
judgment, however, to wait till “Fire Prevention Day” to 
clean out a place which you know to be in a dangerous 
condition. People are often forbidden to make bonfires 


THE WRONG WAY TO DISPOSE OF 
RUBBISH. 

Peddlers and other people sometimes 
dump their rubbish in any alley when 
a policeman is not looking. Such a pile 
as this is both a fire menace and a dan¬ 
ger to health. 





70 Protecting Life and Property 

within the city limits, but when the rubbish is not collected 
and makes the yard look untidy, it is a choice between two 
evils. 

In country districts, each farmer is in a way more re¬ 
sponsible for the prevention of fire, because country com¬ 
munities can not afford to maintain a fire department, and, 
once a fire has started, there is little hope of putting it out. 



Courtesy Forest Service. 

A FIRE LOOK-OUT. 


From stations like this observers can discover any forest fire al¬ 
most as soon as it starts. This particular look-out is in the state of 
Washington. 

Lightning rods are in common use on farm-houses and out¬ 
buildings, and were once thought very valuable in preven¬ 
ting fire by lightning. But though it is more difficult to 
stop a fire in the country, there is not so much danger of its 
spreading, because the houses are farther apart than in the 
city. When a fire does break out, any fences leading to the 
next property may be torn down to keep the fire from run¬ 
ning along the fence to other buildings. 

Our national government has a part in the work of fire 




Putting Out Fires 


71 


prevention, too, especially through its Forest Service. In 
every one of our national forests we have men who are al¬ 
ways watching for the smoke which means that a fire has 
started. “Look-outs” are established in high spots, where 
men with powerful glasses can get a view for miles in every 
direction. When any sign of a fire is discovered, the alarm 
is given, and the “rangers” immediately proceed to put it 
out, if possible, or at least to check its progress. 

Are there any “fire limits” in your community? What regulations 
do you have in regard to the construction of buildings so as to protect 
life and property from harm by fire or other accidents? 

33. Putting Out Fires. — There is perhaps nothing 
which has advanced so much as the method of fighting fire. 
Once it was simply a matter of everybody’s turning out 
when the church bells were rung, and in a disorderly and 
ineffectual way throwing things out of the windows or try¬ 
ing to pour water somewhere. Even when people lined 
up toward the nearest well or brook, and passed buckets 
of water from hand to hand, it was almost hopeless to 
put out a fire that had got a real start. Yet this old- 
fashioned “bucket brigade” is all that many country com¬ 
munities have even to-day. 

The next step was to make a kind of pump on wheels 
which could be dragged to the scene of a fire. With this as a 
start, steady progress was made in the construction of fire 
engines, hook-and-ladder trucks, and the like. Often volun¬ 
teer fire companies were formed, which had their engine- 
houses, and which frequently became much like social 
clubs for the men who belonged to them. When a fire 
broke out, the men would rush to their engine house, and 
drag the engine by long ropes to the fire. 

Why is it unwise to depend on volunteer fire companies if a com¬ 
munity can afford paid firemen? 

Now every large community has a paid Fire Department 
with a Fire Chief at its head. The firemen are organized 



72 Protecting Life and Property 


into companies, and are selected by civil service examina¬ 
tions, because this is one department in which “pull” 
ought not to be used to get a position. They are often 
given training in special schools in the use of the ladders, 
nets, and other things with which they have to be familiar. 

Calling out the fire^ 
men is done by means 
of the alarms which 
come from the alarm 
boxes in different sec¬ 
tions of the city. From 
the box the alarm is 
sounded at the nearest 
engine house. One can 
also call them by tele¬ 
phone. 

The equipment of an 
up-to-date fire company 
is very powerful and 
efficient. Horses are not 
used so much as they 
formerly were to draw 
the fire engines, although 
there will probably al¬ 
ways be a place for a 
few of them in some com¬ 
munities. In their place 
we have huge motor 
trucks that can travel 
more rapidly. The water 
used in fighting fire is 
supplied from water plugs on the various streets. The 
force is very strong, as it needs to be for the purpose. The 
firemen have collapsible ladders which are used for tall 
buildings. Some cities have fire-boats, which are used at 
fires in buildings on the shore of a river or harbor. Chem- 


HOW NOT TO USE A FIRE ESCAPE. 

To hang out washing or to turn into 
a sleeping room are uses for which fire 
escapes were not constructed. Yet in 
the crowded tenement districts of large 
cities the people are often tempted to 
do just these things. 





Fire Insurance 


73 


ical apparatus is often used at small fires or under conditions 
where water would do more harm than good. 

The work of putting out a fire requires courage, in¬ 
telligence, and obedience. To secure the greatest efficiency, 
the work must be done in an orderly way. People should 
never, merely out of 
curiosity, do anything to 
interfere with it. And 
to send in a false alarm 
is a mean and inexcus¬ 
able trick. It is wonder¬ 
ful as well as important 
—this fire fighting. 

Americanfire fighters are 
the best in the world. 

They need to be. 

What would you do if a 
fire broke out where you 
were? Do you know where 
the fire alarm box is situated 
which is nearest to your 
house? If your town has no 
fire-alarm system, how would 
you call for help? What 
might you do yourself before 
help arrived? 

34. Fire Insurance. 

— Fire-insurance com¬ 
panies make it possible 
for the burden of fires to 
be borne by many people in a community instead of by one 
person. They do not, of course, actually prevent fires. 
A certain amount of money, called a premium, is paid to 
the insurance company yearly. All these premiums make 
a large sum of money, and, if a building burns down, the 
amount for which it is insured is paid from this money. 

Fire insurance amounting to over $50,000,000,000 is now 



Courtesy Forest Service 
THE START OF A FOREST FIRE. 


This fire was on the slope of Mount 
Wilson, California. 






74 Protecting Life and Property 

carried by Americans. Of course, the insurance company 
gets a profit, and the loss of property is made good to the 
owner. In this way, nobody has to suffer severely from 
fire loss. Many of the people who take out insurance never 
have fires, but perhaps the security they feel is worth what 
they have to pay in premiums. 

Some people do not want to put their money in fire in- 



CARING FOR AN UNLUCKY YOUNGSTER. 


Perhaps this boy was careless. He is to be taken in the ambu¬ 
lance to the hospital. One of the duties of the police is to look after 
emergency cases of this kind. 

surance, but would rather run the risk of fire. Others, 
instead of paying money out to insurance companies, save 
a certain amount yearly as an emergency fund. Then, if 
they have a fire, they have this money laid aside to cover 
the loss, and if not, they have that much money to .the good. 

Does fire insurance help to make people careless? Is fire insurance 
a kind of gamble? 

35. Dangers to Life and Limb.— Sometimes it seems as 
if civilization has brought more new menaces than it has 







Protecting Travelers 75 

removed. And so, besides the protection of property from 
the awful loss by fire, there are many dangers to the lives 
of the people which the government must try to prevent. 
Some of these, as we have said, are due to carelessness on 
the part of the people themselves, and some to the neg¬ 
ligence of those who should enforce the laws. There is the 
danger at railroad crossings, the danger on the city streets 
from traffic and from lawless people, the danger from fire 
and poorly constructed buildings; there are dangers from 
natural misfortunes, and others. From many of these, 
individuals can not do very much to protect themselves, 
so they are obliged to depend upon the government to defend 
them. 

In order to do this, we have such laws as those regulating 
the construction of buildings, requiring the streets in cities 
to be well lighted, or promoting the safety of workers in 
factories, mines, and the like, by requiring safe machines, 
safety lamps, proper wiring, and sewage disposal. Mines, 
too, must be safely pillared, so as to prevent their caving 
in and menacing the safety and life both of the workers 
below and of the people on the surface. Since these re¬ 
forms have been undertaken, the number of accidents from 
these causes has greatly decreased, although there is still 
much that can be done. 

What is the object of having fire drills in schools and factories? 
Is it done in any such places with which you are acquainted? 

Why do hunters usually have to take out a license? 

36 . Protecting Travelers. — If there were no means of 
protecting people when they travel on the streets of a city 
or town, or by railroad, or by water, very few people would 
venture far away from home, and progress would be very 
greatly hindered. Careful, conservative, and wise people, 
the kind any community would be glad to see come into it, 
would stay just where they were because they would value 
their lives too much to expose them to danger. 


76 


Protecting Life and Property 



One of the steps taken to protect travelers is the regula¬ 
tion of the traffic. This is to protect both pedestrians and 
those who ride in vehicles. The systems in some of the 
cities are very thorough. In New York, all the traffic 

along Fifth Avenue for some 
distance moves at the same 
time, and the traffic on all 
the cross-streets moves at 
once. In many places people 
are not permitted to cross 
the streets except at cross¬ 
ings, and those who disregard 
this law may be arrested. 
Traffic must always keep to 
the right, and narrow streets 
are often made one-way 
thoroughfares. 

The railroad offers another 
problem. In small towns 
there are a great many rail¬ 
road crossings where the 
traffic must stop when a train 
passes. Many lives have 
been lost at such places. To 
prevent such inconvenience 
and disaster, the railroads in 
A warning SIGN. many places have been 

obliged to raise or lower 
either their tracks or the intersecting streets so that they 
do not cross each other at the same level. In this way 
many accidents may be avoided. 


Are there any grade crossings in your community? If so, can they 
be abolished? 

But to make traveling itself safe, many precautions have 
been taken. The tracks and roadbeds are watched and 




Protecting Travelers 77 

kept in repair, and lights or other signals set along the 
tracks to warn the engineers if the tracks ahead are not 
clear. There are also many safety-appliances that must be 
used. One of these is the automatic coupler, which makes 
it possible for railroad cars to be coupled without the 
brakeman’s having to pass between the cars. This has 



DOING AWAY WITH GRADE CROSSINGS. 

You can imagine the delays and the dangers that would be inevitable 
if the railroad crossed the street at this point. 


saved many lives. Then there are safety switches that 
work automatically and do not endanger the lives of train¬ 
men. 

Under the block-signal system, the railroad lines are 
divided into “blocks.” The trains are not supposed to 
pass from one block to the next unless the signal says the 
next block is open. This prevents rear-end collisions. 
But because some engineers may not heed the signals, a 
method of stopping the trains automatically if they go into 
a closed block is being worked on. 

Many states have “full crew” laws, which require a cer- 




78 Protecting Life and Property 

tain number of trainmen for trains of a certain length. To 
prevent the men from working when they are too tired to 
be careful, other laws require that no trainman may work 
more than sixteen consecutive hours. In order to safe¬ 
guard the trainmen on freight trains, ropes are hung at a 
certain distance from overhead bridges and tunnels, to 
warn them not to stand up on top of the cars. 





TRACKS LEADING TO A GREAT STATION. 


At about this point twenty-eight tracks from the South Station 
of Boston converge into the eight tracks used on the railroad. Notice 
the signals which show whether the tracks are clear. 

In order to protect those who travel on the water, there 
are a number of requirements made of ship-owners and 
builders. Each ship must have a sufficient number of life 
boats to accommodate its people, and every passenger must 
be provided with a life belt. Every ocean-ship must have 
a wireless apparatus so that it can call for help if it is in 
need. In passenger ships, there are aisles leading directly 
to the deck, and these must be kept open. No person 
except a member of the crew is permitted to enter the hold 
of a ship where the cargo is carried. 





79 


Preventing Fraud and Dishonesty 

All along the coast are lighthouses, fog horns, buoys, and 
warning signals to advise the ships when they are in danger. 
Pilots and men who tend the boilers must have licenses. 
Inspectors are provided whose duty is to see that ships 
are not overcrowded, and that boilers, hulls, and life boats 

I. D. 306 

Pennsylvania System 

On. August- 1 e -. . 1921, at.....2.:.4O....^j^automobil0 

bearing license—F... 3.045 . Pa. _.listed in your name, 

(Number) (State) 

was driven over the Pennsylvania Railroad tracks at. 

_ Grade Street_• Swithvllle, P a*. 

(Road or Street) (Place) 

without slowing down or making sure that no train was approaching in 
either direction. 

Not in a spirit of criticism, but rather with the view of conserving life, 
it is earnestly requested that you approach grade crossings with car under 
control and look in both directions before crossing the tracks. 

Thus simple precaution, if practiced by all, would save hundreds of 
lives in the United States every year. 

(OVER) 

A WARNING CARD. 

The Pennsylvania Railroad sends cards like this to people who are 
seen doing the careless act mentioned here. On the other side of 
the card is a picture of an automobile which had been struck by an 
engine. 

are in good condition. When we realize the perils that 
lurked in the path of all travelers, by either land or sea, a 
century or two ago, we realize what great progress has been 
made in the protection of life. 

What signs or notices have you seen on trains or boats with reference 
to any of the matters mentioned in this section? 

37. Preventing Fraud and Dishonesty. — Because dis¬ 
honest people are always with us, we must try to prevent 
honest people from being cheated. For example, sometimes 
a grocer or milk dealer sees a profit in giving his customers 
less than they have a right to expect. The city or state 








80 


Protecting Life and Property 


government therefore passes laws governing weights and 
measures, and sends inspectors around to enforce them. 
If a man is found using a false measure unknowingly, the 
measure is confiscated; if he knows it is false, he may be 
fined or imprisoned. For using the United States mails 
to defraud people one can be severely punished. 

Similar in principle are the pure food laws, which we have 
mentioned in connection with our study of health. The 
national government also has a Bureau of Standards in the 
Department of Commerce, which aids in keeping standard 
measures and weights as patterns for the state and local 
governments. Each state, however, may make its own 
laws about weights and measures, and the laws of different 
states do not always exactly agree. 

Would it be a good thing if the laws of the states were exactly uni¬ 
form? How does your state compare with its neighbors in regard to 
the number of pounds of potatoes, wheat, oats, and. the like that are 
necessary to make a legal bushel? 

‘‘Blue Sky” laws are another example of measures to 
protect people from fraud. People have sold stock for an 
oil well that existed only in somebody's imagination, or 
in a moving picture company that never showed a picture. 
The kind of law mentioned above provides a severe penalty 
for doing this sort of thing. People must not sell stocks 
and bonds which do not represent actual investment in a 
real business enterprise. 

Then, too, our governments maintain courts to which 
people can take their cases when they believe they have 
been wronged by another. A very great part of business 
to-day depends on contracts. These are agreements in 
which two or more people declare that they will do or not 
do some particular thing. 

If the government did not help to prevent the breaking 
of agreements, a contract would be to many people just a 
“scrap of paper.” So if one of the parties that have signed 
the contract believes that another party is not complying 


Protection from Natural Misfortunes 81 



with the contract, he can sue the other in court. The 
government, local, state, or national, provides the courts 
in which the case can be tried, and also has its officers 
ready to carry out what¬ 
ever decision is reached 
when the case is tried. 


Some people will tell you, 
‘‘Never go to court if you 
can help it.” Do you think 
this is good advice? Why or 
why not? 

Suppose you own a piece 
of land, and some one goes 
on it without your consent. 
Have you a right to try to 
keep him off? If so, how 
would you go about it? If 
you bought a horse and after¬ 
ward found that he was blind 
in one eye, could you do any¬ 
thing about it? 


FILLING A SIGNAL LAMP. 

This may seem like an unimportant 
job, but if these lamps were not kept in 
order, serious accidents might occur. 


38. Protection from 
Natural Misfortunes.— 

Losses to life and prop¬ 
erty sometimes occur 
from causes which one 
person absolutely could 
not prevent. Perhaps 

you have read about the terrible loss of life and destruction 
of property caused by the breaking of a dam near Johnstown, 
Pa., some years ago. Sometimes the spring freshets cause 
rivers to overflow regularly every year. In order to prevent 
this, levees or embankments have been constructed, as in the 
lower courses of the Mississippi. Efforts have been made 
also to prevent wanton destruction of forests and to plant 
more of them, because trees help to hold the water from 
running off too rapidly. In some places, too, reservoirs 
have been constructed to retain some of the water which 




82 


Protecting Life and Property 


falls during wet seasons, and help to keep its flow more even 
at all times of the year. 

Few people realize how much the farmer suffers, as it 
has been said, from bugs, blizzards, and bad roads. In¬ 
sects and vermin are very injurious. It is said that rats 
alone destroy every year property worth $167,000,000. The 
national Department of Agriculture, and similar depart¬ 
ments in the states, fight these animals and the injurious 
insects which destroy wheat, cotton, and other vegetable 
products. It is more effective for the government to fight 
them than for individuals, because often whole communities 
will be troubled with these pests. 

Sometimes the doctrine that “like cures like” is put into 
operation. Ladybirds are carried by the thousands into the 
Imperial Valley in California to consume the lice that were 
ruining the cantaloupes. If a farmer is troubled with a 
great many field mice, he may set several snakes loose and 
they will soon kill the mice. In order to get rid of the 
snakes, pigs may be turned into the field, and they will get 
rid of the snakes. Many of us would rather meet a field 
mouse than a snake, however. Many states offer boun¬ 
ties to any one who will kill a rattlesnake, hedge-hog, fox, 
bear, or other animal which is considered dangerous. Deer 
are usually protected by law except for a few days in the 
year, though farmers declare that these peaceful looking 
creatures do much harm to growing crops. 

There are certain “blights” which affect trees and plants. 
Under the direction of our Departments of Agriculture, 
men treat the trees or plants in a community which is af¬ 
fected, and endeavor to prevent the spread of the blight. 
Sometimes the law commands a farmer to spray an orchard 
of more than six trees at least once a year. 

Of course, it is hard to prevent the existence of insects, 
but we can do much to keep them from destroying property. 
Most people have no idea how many pamphlets, circulars, 
and the like are published to give advice on these matters 


Catching Law-breakers 


83 


and others of general interest. We ought to call for 
help from our national and state officers much more than 
we do. 

Often cattle and hogs are affected by various diseases 
such as tuberculosis and cholera. Such cattle are now 
quarantined to prevent the spread of disease, and a method 
of vaccinating pigs has been found. Often it is necessary 
for a man to sacrifice a whole herd of cattle because of 
disease, and although the government pays him something, 
it is seldom as much as the herd cost him. But it is better 
that one man should lose his cattle than that the disease 
should spread to many other herds and to human beings. 

In this connection we must not fail to mention the work 
of the national Weather Bureau. It maintains stations 
all over the country, from which weather reports are sent 
to Washington twice daily. From there and from other 
important centers, forecasts are then sent out, telling 
what the weather is likely to be for the next day or two. 
Farmers, truck gardeners, produce dealers, fishermen, 
boatmen, and many other people are thus helped to plan 
their work and protect their products from bad weather. 
Nobody can reckon exactly the value of property thus 
saved, but it must go well into the millions. 

Did the Weather Bureau ever do you personally any good? If 
insect pests or dry weather hurt the wheat crop of North Dakota, 
are you harmed in any way? 

39. Catching Law-breakers. — Because some men are 
not in the habit of respecting the rights of other people, the 
government has to force them to do so. And to catch 
people who break the law, we have our police departments 
in our cities, our sheriffs in our county governments, and 
our constables in our smaller communities. Besides the 
ordinary policeman whom we see every day, there are the 
detectives and plain-clothes men, the state police in some 
states, and the secret service in the national government. 


84 


Protecting Life and Property 


Are crimes more, or less, likely to occur in the country than in the 
city? How does the rural constable compare with the city policeman 
in efficiency? 

A criminal is not safe even if he leaves one community 
and goes to another. A sheriff may go anywhere in the 
state and get an accused person. If a criminal leaves 
the state where he commits a crime, the governor of that 
state can send a “requisition” to the governor of the state 
where the criminal has gone, and that governor will usually 
cause him to be held until officers can come and get him. 
If the criminal goes to a foreign country, our Secretary of 
State has the right under treaties which we have made with 
other governments, to ask that the criminal be held until 
we can bring him back. This practice is called extradition . 
So it is hard for a criminal to evade the law for a very long 
time. 

Can you imagine any circumstances under which a governor would 
not return a criminal for whom a requisition was made? 

40. What a Policeman Does. =— Perhaps we usually 
think of a policeman’s duty as that of making arrests, 
though that is only one of many things he has to do. He 
can arrest people whom he sees in the act of breaking the 
law, or people for whom warrants have been issued by a 
justice of the peace, a magistrate, or an alderman. But 
much of his work is to prevent crime. Often the very 
presence of a policeman will keep a person from committing 
a crime that he has had in mind. 

The policeman has a certain beat, and he must report 
anything unusual that he sees. Where streets are being 
repaired, for example, he must require a red warning signal 
to be set up. He watches the homes of the people to protect 
them from thieves. He directs people who do not know 
where the place is to which they want to go. He stands 
at the gate of the schoolhouse to protect the children from 
careless drivers. There are “traffic cops” who are sta- 


Managing Police and Fire Departments 85 


tioned at busy corners and direct the traffic, thus keeping 
it from confusion and preventing collisions. The police¬ 
man also aids in clearing the streets for parades, and in 
keeping order in public 
meetings. Few of us 
give the policeman credit 
for the many things he 
does. 

Do you know any police¬ 
men personally? How do 
you feel toward them? 

41. Managing Police 
and Fire Departments. 

— The system of manag¬ 
ing the police and fire 
departments in the 
United States is not 
nearly so strict as it is 
in many European coun¬ 
tries. Some of these 
have a Minister of Police 
who is one of the officers 
of their national govern- a patrolman at a signal box. 
ment Here it is left Every patrolman is required to call up 
' .,,11 i at regular intervals the station with 

very largely to the local he j s connected. The telephones 

governments; whose may also be used whenever any emer- 
methods of management s enc y arlses - 
differ very greatly. 

There is usually a superintendent or chief of the police 
and of the fire departments, though sometimes they are 
combined in a Department of Public Safety. Under him 
are various lieutenants, sergeants, and other officers. There 
are plain-clothes men who mingle with the crowds to catch 
pickpockets, forgers, and other law-breakers. In a large 
city there are several police stations which act as head- 
ouarters for the police in different sections of the city. 





86 Protecting Life and Property 

How many policemen does your community have? How are they 
organized? Is there any advantage in having policemen wear uni¬ 
forms? Find out how men are appointed to the police and fire depart¬ 
ments in your community. 

42. Unusual Disturbances. — Sometimes unusual dis¬ 
turbances occur like riots and lynchings, which the local 
police force can not put down. The sheriff of the county 



International. 

STATE MILITIA ON DUTY. 

These state troops had to be called into service when the police of Bos¬ 
ton went on strike. They have arrested some crap-shooters. 

may always act in such cases. He may summon any 
oitizen to aid him in “keeping the peace.’’ If the disturb¬ 
ance is very serious he may have to ask aid from the 
governor of the state. He in turn may call on the state 
police or even the national guard or state militia. Some¬ 
times these forces are called out when there is a strike. 
The strikers usually object to this, for they say that the 




87 


Our Army and Navy 

troops are used to help break the strike and not merely 
to protect property. But disorder almost always occurs 
in connection with a strike unless some such protection is 
given. There is too good a chance for criminals to take 
advantage of the disturbed conditions which prevail. 

The President has power to order out the federal troops 
when he thinks they are needed to protect federal property 
or to see that the federal laws are obeyed. The governor 
of a state, or the legislature, if that body is in session, may 
also ask for help from the President when the state can not 
keep order with its own forces. 

Do you think a state should depend on federal troops to keep order 
within its boundaries? Has any strike or riot occurred in your neigh¬ 
borhood where special protection had to be used? What is a “vigilance 
committee”? When, if ever, is it desirable to trust one of these to 
maintain order? 

43. Protection from Foreign Enemies. — Although the 
invention of the wireless and the cable has brought the 
nations of the world closer together, and nations are not so 
willing to fight one another as formerly, we have not yet 
reached the time when we feel quite safe to abandon our 
former means for protecting ourselves. Besides, some one 
must look out for such enemies of civilization as pirates. 
There have always been people and nations who would do 
the right thing only when they were afraid to do anything 
else. Back of all government, good or bad, is some kind of 
force. And so we have our army and our navy. 

It would not be safe, however, to let the states deal 
directly with foreign countries. So it rests mainly with the 
national government to attend to this matter. If a state 
should be attacked, it could do what might be needed on 
the spur of the moment to protect itself, but would expect 
the national government to come to its aid as soon as 
possible. 

44. Our Army and Navy. — We can not have an airny 


88 Protecting Life and Property 

without men to serve in it, and fighting is a business which 
most people do not like to engage in permanently. If a 
government is to be sure of itself, it must therefore be able 
to compel its citizens to fight for it if necessary. So all men 
between the ages of eighteen and forty-five inclusive, are 
said to be of “military age” and are subject to call for 
military service. In the Great War, men between twenty- 
one and thirty were drafted for military service and when 



Courtesy Marine Corps. 

SIGNAL MEN OF THE MARINES. 

They worked hand in hand with the French signal men during the 
Great War. 

the fighting stopped, the work of enrolling all others of 
military age was under way. At that time, we had 
4,000,000 men either in training camps or ready to fight. 

This draft system seemed much more efficient and satis¬ 
factory than the old volunteer method, although volunteers 
were welcome in this last war. It was possible to let those 
stay at home who had families to support, or were skilled 
in doing the kind of work most necessary to win the war. 
Under the old system the burden of fighting rested upon 
those who were most patriotic and conscientious, and it was 
easy to be a “slacker/* 



89 


Our Army and Navy 

After the war came the demobilization of the army, and 
most of the men went back to their peace-time occupations. 
Our standing army has always been very small, but it has 
been raised under the latest law so that it can be expanded 
to about 500,000 men. Congress has decided that we 
should try to keep the number about 150,000. The navy 
numbers about 65,000 men, and there is a splendid Marine 
Corps of about 15,000. 

Our complete unpreparedness for a large war has raised 
the question, “Should the United States have compulsory 
military training?” But Americans do not want anything 
that might tend toward militarism, and, like the English, 
are not, as a whole, anxious that military training should be 
required of every boy. There are, however, military camps 
and schools where men may go and receive training. Lately 
our government has made it a special point to see that those 
who enlist in the army or navy are given a chance to learn 
a trade while in service. Then when their term is ended 
they will have some particular occupation which they are 
fitted to take up. 

We have our Military Academy at West Point and our 
Naval Academy at Annapolis, where boys from all parts 
of the country are trained to become officers. Most ap¬ 
pointments to these academies are made by the congressmen 
from the different states. The work done at these schools 
is of a very high order. 

The army is in charge of the War Department, with the 
Secretary of War at its head. The military administration 
is distributed among several bureaus, each of which has a 
particular part of the work to do. As a kind of connecting 
link between the army and the War Department comes the 
General Staff. The Chief of Staff is at the head of it, and 
he is the acting head of the army. The General Staff re¬ 
commends plans and makes suggestions for the defense of 
the country and the general welfare of the army. 

The Secretary of the Navy is at the head of the Navy 


90 Protecting Life and Property 

Department, and its work is also divided among several 
bureaus. 

There are several hundred ships, from dreadnaughts 
down to submarines. The ships are usually built by private 
companies under contracts. It is often a serious problem 
to know what to do about the building of many ships be¬ 
cause new inventions follow one another so rapidly that 
the ships soon go out of date. 

Would you or would you not like to serve in the army or navy? 
What good or bad features do you see in such a life? 



Courtesy Bureau of Construction and Repair 
A SUBMARINE UNDER WAY. 


Taken at San Pedro, California. This boat can make 15.6 knots 
per hour. The use of the submarine in war has raised many per¬ 
plexing questions. Some think it to be a sneak’s way of fighting, 
but if one nation uses submarines the others think they must do so 
too. 


45. Movements for Peace Among Nations. — Just as 
it is far better to prevent sickness than to cure it, so it is 
very much wiser to prevent war than to have all the suffer¬ 
ing and loss of life and property that even the victorious 
side in a war is obliged to endure. For this reason, the 
ablest men in the civilized countries of the world have 
tried to discover some means of settling disputes among 
nations without going to war. 





Movements for Peace Among Nations 91 

Great world conferences, called by the Czar of Russia, 
met at The Hague, in 1899 and 1907. Some countries re¬ 
fused to give up any of their armies and navies, and were 
suspicious of the intentions of others, so that not as much 
came from these conferences as was hoped. But a Court of 
Arbitration was provided for, which decided a number 
of controversies among nations. When the treaty of peace 
was made after the Great War, it included a covenant for 
a League of Nations, in which it was hoped to associate all 
the right-thinking nations under pledges to refrain from 
going to war until they had tried to settle their disputes 
peacefully. At present (July, 1924) fifty-four nations 
have become members of the League. In November, 1921, 
delegates from the leading world-powers assembled at 
Washington, at the invitation of our government, and 
adopted the first effective program yet proposed for reduc¬ 
ing armaments. Perhaps we are on the right track at last. 

46. Public Agencies to Protect Life and Property. — Let 
us now put in the form of a table the different officers, 
departments, and the like, by means of which our govern 
ment endeavors to protect life and property. 

LOCAL STATE NATIONAL 

Township or Village 

Constables Governor President 


or 


Policemen 


National Guard War Department 
Adjutant General Army 


Firemen 
Justice’s Courts 


State Constabulary Navy Department 


Navy 


State Fire Marshal 


City 


Department of Justice 


Mayor 


Department of Labor 
and Industry Department of Treas¬ 


ury 


Factory Inspectors Secret Service 


Mine Inspectors Life Saving Service 


92 


Protecting Life and Property 


LOCAL STATE 

Department of Public 
Safety- 

Bureau of Police Public Service 
Bureau of Fire Commission 

Bureau of Building 

Inspection Courts 

etc. 


Department of Health 


NATIONAL 


Department of Inter¬ 
ior 

Forest Service 
Bureau of Mines 
Department of Agri¬ 
culture 

Weather Bureau 
Bureau of Animal 
Industry- 

Bureau of Plant In¬ 
dustry 


Aldermen and 

Police Magistrates 
Courts 


Department of Com¬ 
merce 

Bureau of Naviga¬ 
tion 

Bureau of Standards 


County 

County Fire Marshal Interstate Commerce 

Commission 

Sheriff Federal Courts 

Courts 

Rearrange this table as far as is necessary to make it suit your state 
and locality. Find the names of the important officers who are con¬ 
nected with this work in all the three grades of government. 


47. What the Citizen Can Do.—If all citizens would 
only do what might reasonably be expected of them, the 
work of our governments along any line would be very much 
less. The matter of personal carefulness enters very 
largely into the protection of life and property. If we 
deliberately run into danger, no law can protect our lives, 
and, as we have seen, our careless acts may affect many 
people. So it is our duty to exercise care and thoughtful¬ 
ness, not only for ourselves, but for those about us who 
help make our lives happy and comfortable, and who would 
suffer inconvenience and loss if we should fail to do our part. 

Voting—the duty and the privilege of every grown citi- 


What the Citizen Can Do 


93 


zen, can be made the means of putting those people in 
office who will care for the lives and the welfare of the peo¬ 
ple. We can study the character of a person before we 
vote for him, and support loyally those who are in office 
and are trying to do their duty. We can respect the 
authority of the police and 
the firemen, and of all the 
officers, local, state, or 
national, who are our 
agents in the protection of 
our lives and property. 

Sometimes people find 
fault with our policemen 
and firemen and say that 
they are unfit to do the 
work that they are sup¬ 
posed to do. Once in a 
while they are said to be 
dishonest, and it may hap¬ 
pen to be true. But after 
all, is it not really the 
fault of the people them¬ 
selves if these things are so? 

If a worthless man is put 
on the force it is usually 
because somebody who has influence in politics gets him 
appointed. But this politician would not have such in¬ 
fluence if the people would elect thoroughly capable, cour¬ 
ageous men to be officers in charge of a city. If a policeman 
takes money and then looks the other way when somebody 
breaks a law, the man who bribes the policeman is surely as 
much to blame as the officer himself. Very much of the dis¬ 
honest and inefficient work that is done in public office is the 
result of people's trying to get privileges to which they are 
not entitled. If we should all insist on the policy of 
giving no special favors to anybody, including ourselves, 



This Is Hard on the Motorman 
Ii Maif Prove Hard on you 
Dodging cars 
Hitching on wagons 
Skating in crowded streets 
is 

Unfair to Others 
Dangerous to Yourself 

Copyright National Child Welfare Association 
INEXCUSABLE CARELESSNESS. 





94 Protecting Life and Property 

it would be very much easier to get a square deal for 
everybody. 


QUESTIONS 

How do communities help to make their people feel safe? What is 
the importance of security? From what dangers have men needed 
protection in the past and from what do we need protection now? 
What kinds of peril are the result of carelessness? 

How much property is destroyed by fire in the United States? How 
does this country compare with other countries in this respect? By 
what means do we try to prevent fire? What facilities do we have 
for putting out fires? Compare old-style methods with present-day 
methods. Do firemen need to be intelligent? What does the forest 
service do in dealing with fires? What is the use of fire insurance? 
How is it provided? 

Mention laws that aim to prevent accident. How do we try to 
protect travellers? What are grade crossings? Block signals? Full 
crew laws? 

How does the government try to protect people from fraud? What 
are “blue sky” laws? What are contracts? Why are they important? 

Name some special pests that the farmer has to contend with. 
How do our governments try to aid him? Describe the work of the 
Weather Bureau. 

If a person commits a crime how many kinds of officials may get 
after him? Define extradition. Explain the work of the policeman. 
How are police and fire departments managed? When public dis¬ 
orders become serious, what public authorities may be obliged to act? 

For what purpose, if at all, do we need the army or navy? How are 
men obtained for service in peace or war? How does our government 
train men for service? How are our army and navy administered? 
Mention some of the international movements to prevent war. To 
what extent have these been successful? 

How much responsibility for the protection of life and property 
rests on citizens? Why do we sometimes find bad and inefficient men 
in the service? 


THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Dangers of Being Alive. 

Our State Constabulary. 

Our National Guard. 

How Our Fire Department Is Managed. 

Fire Drills 


Themes and Exercises 


95 


Tragedies That Should Not Have Happened. 

Life Saving on the Coast. 

Safety on the Railroad. 

The Work of Our Police. 

What the Weather Bureau Does. 

Abolishing Grade Crossings. 

Great Fires of History. 

Lighthouses and Their Care. 

Making Steamboats Safe. 

Preserving the Trees. 

Moths, Bugs, and Beetles. 

Safety First Campaigns. 

Life in the Army, 

The Marines. 

A Sailor in Service. 

West Point and Annapolis. 

Street Lights. 

The Menace of the Automobile. 

If it is desired and the time is available, special studies like the 
following may be found worth while: 

Clothing 

Importance to the individual and the community. 

Sources of raw material. 

How to encourage the raising of raw material. 

Healthful conditions in clothing shops. 

How the consumer may influence conditions of manufacture. 

The marketing of clothing. 

The tricks of price making. 

National Consumers’ League. 

Laws to make the customer sure that he gets what he pays for. 
Fashions in clothing—shall we follow them? Who sets them? 
Conservation of clothing. 

Keeping clothing clean. 

The history of a garment you are wearing. 

Shelter 

Importance to the family and the community. 

Housing problems in city or country. 

Advantages of owning or renting. 

Planning a dwelling house. 

Important features of construction. 

The city dwelling and the country dwelling. 


96 


Protecting Life and Property 


Getting money to build a house—Building and Loan Associations. 
Tenements and Apartments. 

Universal features. 

Health laws for landlords and tenants. 

The tenant’s obligations to the landlord. 

The landlord’s obligation to the tenant. 

Rent profiteers and what to do with them. 

Home life. 

Different types. 

Effects upon the home of hours of labor of the parents. 

Home life where the mother earns a living. 

Home life where the children are employed in shops and factories 
Home life to-day and a century ago. 

Things that break up the home life. 

Things that make home life finer and happier,. 


CHAPTER IV 


TRAINING THE GROWING CITIZEN 


Without popular education, no government which rests upon popular 
action can long endure. The people must be schooled in the knowledge, 
and if possible in the virtues, upon which the maintenance and success of 
free institutions depend. — Wilson. 

When the state has bestowed education, the man who accepts it must 
be content to accept it merely as charity, unless he returns it to the state in 
full in the shape of good citizenship. — Roosevelt. 


48. Why We Should Want to Be Educated. — “What's 
the use of going to school?'’ we sometimes hear some restless 
boy or girl exclaim. “I want to get out and have a good 
time"—or, perhaps, “earn some money." But those who 
know will tell such a complainer that a well-educated person 
can undoubtedly get more out of life and enjoy it more than 
an ignorant person, no matter what line of work he may 
follow. 

Men without much schooling have sometimes risen to 
high positions, but the Abraham Lincolns are not many. 
Besides, Lincoln was one of the few people who have ambi¬ 
tion to seek through their own efforts the learning which 
others will not get unless it is almost forced upon them. 
Hardly more than one per cent of the people of the United 
States have been to college, yet out of that small number 
have come more than half of the men who have held high 
political positions in our government. In business, em¬ 
ployers are always inclined to employ a person who has had 
an education rather than one who has not. Those who 
have education in addition to natural ability are the ones 

97 




98 Training the Growing Citizen 

who get most of the good positions. Every year spent 
in school adds to the pupil’s earning capacity and financial 
success in life. 

But we all know there is something else in life besides 
mere existence and the earning of a living. The “almighty 
dollar” is not the only thing we should strive for. Educa¬ 
tion helps us to get more pleasure out of life. There are the 
books that afford us so much enjoyment, books that are 
among our best friends. The people who can not read and 
write miss all the history, the poetry, the good stories that 
any of us can enjoy who have come even to the seventh 
grade in school. We also study in school music, art, 
sciences, and other subjects of interest. And even if we do 
not take courses in them, our minds are trained so that we 
can understand and enjoy them. 

A democracy needs intelligent people. We call our¬ 
selves a democracy because we govern ourselves. The 
people act through the officers whom they elect, and the 
officers merely express and carry out the will of the people. 
So the people must be educated if they are to think and act 
wisely and for the welfare of the community. The educa¬ 
tion of a few people will do little good unless the masses 
are intelligent. In Russia, for example, the number who 
were educated were so few that the masses of ignorant 
people could easily be kept under the control of a few 
leaders. When the power of the upper classes was over¬ 
thrown, the mass of the Russians did not know what to do 
with liberty. Education teaches us the principles of good 
citizenship and the ways in which we can be of use in our 
community. 

What would you have missed if you had been unable to go to 
school? Why are you going to school now? Is education of all the 
people desirable in a country governed by one man or a few men? 
Would the government be better than it is if one honest, intelligent 
man had entire control of it? 

49. Why We Have Public Schools. — If education were 


Why We Have Public Schools 


99 


left to individuals there would be many ignorant people 
in the United States. If there were no public schools, 
people who were rich enough and wise enough would send 
their children to private schools, but this percentage would 
probably be small and very many of the people would go 
uneducated. 

There was a time when education was almost entirely 
in the hands of churches or other religious organizations. 
.Some churches still maintain their own schools, and the 
government offers no 
objection if the quality 
of their work is good 
enough. But many 
churches are not large 
enough or rich enough 
to support good schools 
of their own, and many 
people would not care 
to send their children 
to schools where some 
religious teaching was 
given which the parents 
did not believe in. 

Public schools give 
every one an equal op¬ 
portunity to become educated. Of course, the cost is 
enormous. But the citizens are, or ought to be, willing to 
pay taxes for the support of the schools, because they know 
that the pupils of today are not only citizens, but the 
voters and office-holders of tomorrow. If our government 
is to continue wise and good, these children must be 
educated. 

Then public schools make for democracy. There every¬ 
body is treated the same—nch and poor alike, and no 
preference or partiality is shown. The public schools are, 
for most pupils at least, as efficient as private schools, 



THE LITTLE RED SCHOOLHOUSE. 

No doubt interesting memories center 
around this place, but how much better 
equipped is the building shown on page 

102! 





100 Training the Growing Citizen 

so there is no reason for rich parents to send their children 
to private schools, and leave the public schools to the 
poorer people. 

For what kind of pupils might private schools be somewhat more 
helpful than public schools? Mention some things that a private 
school could not give its pupils. Should any other language than 
English be used in the schools, public or private? 

50. How Our Schools Are Organized. — The schools 
of the United States are not under the control of the na¬ 
tional government. It takes great interest in them, how¬ 
ever, since they so vitally affect the life of the nation. In 
the Department of the Interior is the national Bureau of 
Education, with the United States Commissioner of Educa¬ 
tion at its head. This bureau collects information and 
statistics about the schools, publishes reports, and gives 
advice, but it has no real authority over the schools. 

There has been some talk of extending the control of the 
national government in educational matters, and establish¬ 
ing a Department of Education with a cabinet officer at its 
head. But this idea has met with opposition as well as 
approval. The national government does, however, help 
to maintain agricultural colleges in the states. It also 
has voted money to aid the states in maintaining vocational 
and industrial schools, and to help educate for a trade the 
soldiers who suffered from wounds or disease during the 
Great War. 

In most states there is a State Board of Education 
to oversee the schools, although direct management is 
left to the school boards in the local districts. At 
the head of this board is an officer known as the State 
Superintendent of Education, the Commissioner of Edu¬ 
cation, or the Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
This board makes rules regulating the course of study, 
it assigns among the schools the money appropriated for 
that purpose by the state legislature, and may establish 
regulations about the granting of teachers' certificates, and 


How Our Schools Are Organized 101 

many other matters affecting the schools. Under the con¬ 
trol of the State Board are usually the State Normal 
Schools in which teachers are trained. 

The Board of Regents in New York State has very ex¬ 
tensive power. It adopts courses of study for schools all 
over the state, and arranges for uniform examinations to 
be taken by all pupils. In some states the State Board or 
some state officer selects the text books to be used by all 
the schools in the state. But in most states the control 
of the schools is left chiefly to local officers, known as school 
directors or trustees, or, in cities, the Board of Education. 
They are usually chosen by popular vote though sometimes 
appointed by the Mayor or Judges. 

This board is held responsible at law for the management 
of the schools, but in all the larger communities and many 
smaller ones it elects a superintendent, and entrusts to him 
the duties of actual administration. Each school may be 
put under the charge of a principal. In most of the best 
school systems such matters as the choice of teachers, plan¬ 
ning of courses of study, ordering of supplies, and perhaps 
even the arrangement of buildings, are left to the recom¬ 
mendation of the superintendent. Either he or the princi¬ 
pals and teachers decide on the text-books to be used. The 
board, however, must give final approval to the superinten¬ 
dent’s plans, in order to make them legal, and must decide 
on the amount of money to be raised and the means 
of securing it. Sometimes the laws or constitution of 
the state may fix a limit on the amount of school 
expenses. 

In the rural districts, the schools cannot be so completely 
organized as in the city. Formerly the “little red school- 
house” with its one room and one teacher, with all eight 
grades together, each grade having not more than five or 
six pupils, was common. The teachers often obtained their 
positions because they were related to the school board, 
or for some other personal reason. 


102 Training the Growing Citizen 

The tendency is now, however, to combine these numer¬ 
ous small schools into a consolidated rural school, and to 
take the children to and from their homes and the school 
in wagons or hacks. By this means every child can study 
in a school with good equipment, and have as good op¬ 
portunities as children in larger communities. In many 
states, all rural schools in a county are united under a 



A CONSOLIDATED RURAL SCHOOL. 

Notice the buses in which pupils are carried to and from school. 


county board or county superintendent with general charge 
of them all. 

In many states the school districts are arranged in classes 
in accordance with their population, so that the needs of 
communities of different sizes can be met to the best ad¬ 
vantage. The method of managing the schools may be 
somewhat different in one class from what it is in the others. 

51. Laws About School Attendance. — Since some boys 
and girls do not realize the need of going to school, and 
some parents are ignorant or careless, the states have laws 






Laws About School Attendance 


103 


requiring pupils to attend school. In some states all 
children between the ages of six and fourteen must attend. 
In some the required age is six to sixteen, or eight to sixteen, 
and, in one or two of the western states, attendance is re¬ 
quired up to the age of eighteen. 

What are the age limits in your state for compulsory attendance? 
Do many people under or over these limits go to school? 

The length of the school term also differs greatly through¬ 
out the United States. Many of the best schools are open 



A CORRIDOR IN THE HIGH SCHOOL, EL PASO, TEXAS. 

ten months of the year—that is, for two hundred days. The 
term in city schools is usually longer than in the rural 
schools, and is, on the whole, shorter in the South than 
in the other parts of the country. 

Is there anything to be said in favor of short terms of school? Should 
country schools have shorter terms than city schools? What holidays 
do you think should be observed—why and how? 

In some places, attendance seventy per cent of the school 
term is required in order to call it a year. This is to prevent 
parents from keeping children too long out of school to 
work. Often farmers, for example, think they must keep 










104 Training the Growing Citizen 

the boys, and girls, too, at home till late in the fall and take 
them out early in spring to help with the farm work. In 
the last few years this condition has grown worse rather 
than better, since farmers have had so much trouble to 
get any one at all to work for them. If a pupil is absent 
for a very long time, and the reason is unknown, a truant 
officer is sent to his home to find out the reason. 

Many pupils want to quit school and go to work before 
they reach the age of sixteen. Some states allow them 
to leave at fourteen, if the family pocketbook must have 
their help, but if they leave when they are fourteen, they 
must attend a continuation school for two years. But 
as we have seen, it is to the pupil's interest to remain in 
school as long as possible. 

52. How the Schools Are Supported. — The cost of 
keeping up the schools is very great. About $1,000,000,000 
is spent for educational purposes in the United States 
every year. Yet this was much less than half of the 
amount that we used to spend for intoxicating liquor in a 
year, and less than three times as much as we spent for sun¬ 
daes, ice cream, and soft drinks. 

Most of this money is obtained by taxes collected from 
the people in the local districts. All property owners must 
pay a school tax, which is often the largest tax they have 
to pay. The state usually appropriates money from the 
treasury to assist the local governments in the upkeep of the 
schools. Especially it helps small communities which other¬ 
wise could not afford to keep the standard of education high. 

Some Western states have a special fund laid aside, the 
income from which is used to maintain the schools. The 
money is obtained from the sale of public lands, or some¬ 
times from licenses and other sources of revenue. 

How much does your community spend for educational purposes? 
How much does this average per pupil in the grades and in the high 
school? Do you think people are usually willing to pay the school 
tax? Why? 


School Buildings—Good and Bad 105 

53. School Buildings—Good and Bad. — The school 
buildings and their equipment have advanced wonderfully 
with the growth of the country. - The school houses used 
to be built with the idea of spending just as little money 
as possible, and then just enough was provided for books 
and teachers so that the school could struggle along. 

But in up-to-date communities all this is changed. We 
now have large, beautiful buildings, with big class rooms, 
adequate provisions for ventilation and for heating, and 



AN EXCELLENT SCHOOL BUILDING IN A COUNTRY VILLAGE. 


everything is constructed for the health and comfort of the 
pupils. We have gymnasiums in the schools, and often 
swimming pools in connection with them. A great many 
schools have lunch rooms where good food can be bought 
cheaply, and there are sewing and cooking rooms, manual 
training and machinery departments. 

The modern school buildings are constructed as far as 
possible of fireproof material, and are provided with fire 
escapes and exits. All doors in a school building must 
open out, and many of them have safety locks that can 
always be opened from the inside. The schools are very 




106 


Training the Growing Citizen 


much more comfortable and attractive places for the pupils 
to work in than they used to be. 

Can you study any better in an expensive building than in a cheap 
one? Should school buildings be made handsome just for the sake 
of the looks? What does your school need that it does not have? 
Why doesn’t it have it? 

54. Making the Schools Most Useful. — Why should 
not a school be of some use to the rest of the community as 
well as to the young folks? No reason in the world. The 
school ought to be a community center, and people should 
use it for literary societies, civic associations, debates, 
lectures, and all kinds of public meetings. Some schools 
are used now for registering voters and for elections, and 
they probably will be used more for these purposes in the 
future, especially since the ladies can vote. 

Some people think that the schools should be open all 
the year round instead of being closed and out of use two 
or three months of the year. Many schools have special 
summer courses of about six weeks. People who are be¬ 
hind in their work, or those who wish to go ahead faster, 
attend these summer schools. There has been some talk 
of having a twelve-month school year, divided into four 
quarters, each pupil being required to attend three of the 
four. 

How would you like this arrangement? Do you think it could be 
worked as well in small communities as in large ones? 

One thing that has done a great deal for both health and 
education is the establishment of open-air schools. This 
was started in Germany for the pupils who were not in good 
physical condition. The first American city to take up this 
work was Chicago. Now we have many open-air schools. 
The pupils keep their wraps on, so that there is no danger 
of their taking cold. Many of these schools have been 
established for tubercular children, who can be in the air 
and taking care of their health, and at the same time re¬ 
ceiving an education. 


Making the Schools Most Useful 107 


But it is in the country, perhaps, that the schools can be 
made of the greatest direct use to the community. In some 
country schools exhibits and lectures are given which are 
of great value to the farmers. They make tests of the 
corn, identify weed seeds in the clover or alfalfa seed, 
and do many other things that help them to get the best 
returns from their crops. The country school should be 



AN OUTDOOR SCHOOL ROOM. 

Here pupils who have consumptive tendencies do their work. They 
are given at regular times something nourishing to eat or drink. 


the very center of the life of the community. The rural 
schools are now being built with a view to their serving as 
community centers, and are more suited to meetings and 
gatherings than the old type of building. 

A public library can be operated in connection with the 
school. This tends to draw the people together there 
and to promote sociability among them, besides providing 
them with good literature that they may enjoy. To help 
in this direction, some states have made arrangements to 











108 


Training the Growing Citizen 


send out “traveling libraries” which can go from district 
to district, remaining a few weeks or months in each. 
In other places, wagons go out carrying a stock of books 
from a central county library, and from them books are 
borrowed directly by farmers and their families. 

Often there are older people in rural communities who 
did not have educational advantages when they were 
younger, but would like to get a little knowledge in their 
spare time. For these people evening sessions, sometimes 
called “Moonlight Schools,” are held. Many people attend 
these and are very grateful for the opportunity. Especially 
in the mountain districts of the South, an amount of good 
lias been accomplished which can never be measured. 

For how many purposes are your schools used by the community? 
Could they be made more useful? 

55. What Should We Teach in the Schools? — The 
subjects we study in our schools are more numerous than 
they were years ago. In the common schools, the three 
R’s—readin’, ’ritin’, and Arithmetic, with some spelling, 
just about covered the whole ground. But how different 
today! 

And so with the high schools. They have grown almost 
as fast as Jonah’s gourd. Fifty years ago only the largest 
towns had them. And after they were started, for a long 
time their principal aim was to prepare the pupils for col¬ 
lege. But everybody could not go to college, and those 
who did not go received no special preparation for the work 
they wished to do. 

There is much more variety in our courses now in all 
except the small schools. The pupil may choose an in¬ 
dustrial course, a technical arts course, a business course, 
or an academic course. It would be too much to expect 
these courses to turn out trained engineers or business folk 
or domestic science teachers, but they do give preparation 
for these and other vocations. The gymnasium woi^ pro- 


What Should We Teach in the Schools? 109 


motes and protects the health of the pupils. There are 
classes in sewing, cooking, millinery, and various crafts 
that are very valuable in home life later. The business 
courses train pupils for positions as stenographers, clerks, 
and bookkeepers. 

Subjects that are alive are taught. These include 
history, civics, economics, sociology, and other subjects 
that prepare the pupils for their future dealings with their 
neighbors and with the world. It is very important to give 
young people the principles of fair dealing and helpfulness 
to others before they are too old and hardened in their 
ways of thinking. 

One of the best of the new features of our schools is the 
junior high school. Instead of making our boys and girls 
spend a year or two simply reviewing subjects they have 
learned in the fifth or sixth grade, we put the next three 
grades in a school of their own, and start them on new sub^ 
jects whose practical value or interest any one can see, 
Under this plan, there is no such sudden jump, as formerly, 
from the eighth grade to the high school, and more people 
are encouraged to go through the whole course. 

What subjects are you taking that you think will help you after you 
have left school? Should you judge every subject by its fitness to 
help you earn money? Should pupils be compelled to take subjects 
which they do not like? What subjects are most often required for 
admission to college? Is it good to let pupils have a share in the 
government of the school? 

In many cases, pupils are forced to leave school to go to 
work, or wish to do so, before they have reached the age 
when the laws of the state permit them to stop school. For 
these people we have the continuation courses. The 
pupil goes to school one day or a part of a day each week, 
and works the rest of the time. The loss of that one day’s 
work is not supposed to be deducted from his salary. In 
these schools the boys and girls learn much that will help 
them in their work. The laws concerning continuation 


110 Training the Growing Citizen 

schools are sometimes enforced laxly or not at all. In these 
cases, of course, the schools do little good. Public night 
schools are also conducted in the large cities, which are of 
great value to those who must work in the day time. 

Do you think it is possible for a boy or girl to obtain as good an 
education in a continuation school as in a regular school? 



Courtesy Bureau of Indian Affairs 
PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION. 


These girls from the Indian Boarding School at the Sherman reser¬ 
vation in California, are learning to do something that will be very 
useful. 

No matter how good our laws about schools may be, 
and no matter how many subjects we put in the course 
of study, the schools will be far less helpful than they 
ought to be, if we do not have teachers who can conduct 
them properly. One of the most serious problems of recent 
years, especially in the country districts, has been that of 
getting suitable teachers. The salaries paid have been so 
low that no person with brains enough to earn fair pay 








How They Do It in Other Countries 111 


would accept a position in a country school unless he had 
more of the missionary spirit than most people have. The 
result has been that school after school has been closed for 
months or taught by a boy or girl who did not have even a 
high school diploma. 

Our best states, however, are now trying to remedy this 
situation. One method in use is to have the state pay from 
the state treasury enough money so that the intelligent 
man or woman may find it worth while to teach in the 
country school. When reasonable salaries are paid, the 
state and the school district can insist that a teacher shall 
follow a course of special training and shall show that he 
possesses the qualifications necessary for such a very im¬ 
portant position. Many states have excellent normal 
schools devoted entirely to the training of teachers, and 
some of our large cities maintain training schools which the 
graduates of the local high schools may attend. 

What are the qualifications required of a teacher in the grade schools 
or the high schools in your state? By whom are the teachers ap¬ 
pointed or elected? How do the salaries of the teachers in your 
neighborhood compare with those of any other place you know of? 

56. How They Do It in Other Countries. — It would 
hardly be correct to think of the schools of the United States 
as an “educational system/’ for they have just grown up 
without any great amount of planning. Each state is still 
“a law unto itself” and operates its schools exactly as it 
pleases. With the 25,000,000 people who attend our schools 
every year, our public school system is more extensive 
than that of any European country, but we do not have as 
much centralized control over them as most other countries 
do. 

In England, education was left entirely to church or 
charity schools until 1870. It was the last advanced nation 
to adopt a real public school system, as we use the term. 
What the English call “public schools” we would call “acade¬ 
mies,” and their “board” schools are like our public 


112 Training the Growing Citizen 

schools. But now they have the primary and secondary 
schools for all who will attend, and children from 7 to 14 
are required to attend school. They usually have separate 
schools for boys and for girls. 

England has always differed from the United States 
in having schools maintained by the Church of England. 
Many of these schools receive money from the government 
to help in supporting them. Boys’ schools, such as Rugby 
and Eton, and the two famous universities, Oxford and 
Cambridge, are known wherever any one knows anything 
about England. England deserves a great deal of credit 
for her efforts in recent years to raise the standard of her 
educational system. Perhaps no other nation did as much 
in proportion as England did to improve her schools while 
the Great War was on. 

In France, the schools are divided into three groups, 
primary, secondary, and university. These are all under 
the same authority, and the system is complete from the 
primary department through the university. The primary 
schools are like our grades, only more complete, teaching 
languages, science, and the like. The secondary schools 
are more advanced than our high schools, and lead directly 
to the university. At the head of the school system is the 
Minister of Education, who is a member of the French 
Cabinet. 

All French communities must have at least one school. 
Those of more than 500 inhabitants must maintain separate 
schools for boys and girls. Education is compulsory from 
6 to 13. A pupil may, however, take an examination at the 
age of eleven, and if he passes he is exempt from further 
school attendance. A person who is educated under a 
private tutor must take examinations, and if he does not 
pass, he must attend the public schools. 

Germany has had a very thorough educational system. 
One feature that has marked their method is that at a very 
early age, the pupils are separated, some entering the trade 


Private Institutions for Education 113 


schools, and others those which prepare the students for 
the universities. This system could never be adopted in 
the United States because it is not democratic, and leads 
inevitably to class distinctions. 

Doubtless we can learn something from what each of 
these and other countries have done with their schools. 
They often do things more thoroughly than we do. Yet 
we should not want to exchange our system, as a whole, with 
any of them. We can truthfully say that our public schools 
are growing better every day, and in spite of the fault that 
some people find with them, they never served their com¬ 
munities so well as now. Let us make them still better. 

Can your community be proud of its schools? Are you proud of 
your school? 

57. Private Institutions for Education. — Since our 
public schools are so many and so good, the private schools 
are not so important as they used to be. In one respect 
they generally have an advantage over the public schools. 
The classes are usually small, and more individual attention 
can be given to each pupil. But there is often a temptation 
in the private schools to keep pupils who do not do satis¬ 
factory work, merely to have the money that comes from 
their tuition fees. Some people believe that private 
schools are undemocratic. They declare that people send 
their children to private schools because they think they 
are too good to mingle with the common run of humanity. 
And there is something we get by mingling with all kinds 
and conditions of people, that those who do not have such 
an opportunity can not acquire. 

Are there private schools in your community? If so, is their 
standard high or low? Which kind of school, public or private, would 
you prefer to attend, and why? 

There are various kinds of private institutions of learn¬ 
ing, with which the government has nothing to do except 
to see that children who do not attend the schools are being 


114 Training the Growing Citizen 

educated somewhere, and that a proper standard of in¬ 
struction is maintained. Some churches, especially the 
Roman Catholic, support very extensive parochial schools, 
in which the pupils are instructed in the doctrines of the 
church as well as in the common school subjects. There are 
also private schools for boys and for girls conducted by 
men or women very much like any business undertaking. 



UNIVERSITY HALL, BROWN UNIVERSITY. 

This is a view on the front campus of one of our fine eastern col¬ 
leges. This building was used some of the time during the Revolu¬ 
tion to quarter some of the French troops who came to aid the 
Americans in their struggle for Independence. 

These may correspond to either the grade schools or the 
high schools in the public system. There are some notable 
private academies which aim particularly to prepare for 
college or offer some special kind of training. 

Then there are the numerous colleges and universities. 
Most of the states have universities supported by the state. 
They are the next step after the high school in the public 
school system, and offer free tuition to residents of the state. 








Private Institutions for Education 115 


But in the East most of the universities are conducted by 
private corporations. Colleges are sometimes endowed 
by public-spirited people, and sometimes carried on as a 
business enterprise. 

The universities and colleges offer many different courses. 
There are technical schools, with engineering courses, applied 
design, and the like, and the colleges and universities offer 
courses in medicine, law, pharmacy, domestic arts, social 
work, economics, secretarial work, and others. These in¬ 
stitutions are of very great aid in educating citizens for pro¬ 
fessions where special learning and practice are required, and 
in training them to take places of leadership in the world, 

Do you think there are any people who should not go to college? 
Why? Other things being equal, would a college man be better 
qualified to be President than one who did not go to college? 

In every city there are business schools which offer to 
prepare the students for positions as clerks, stenographers, 
bookkeepers, and the like. In these schools, no subjects 
are taught which do not relate directly to the business 
the student expects to take up. The courses are usually 
from sixteen to thirty-two weeks, and their purpose is to 
turn out people trained for office work. 

What would be gained or lost by a pupil who left his regular school 
course to take up work in a business “college”? 

These schools, as well as many colleges and universities, 
give courses at night, two or three nights a week. In this 
way, a person may work, and at the same time learn things 
that will advance him in his work. It is often impossible 
for a person to stop working and go to school, though he 
may go to school at night. Many people take advantage of 
such opportunities, and the night schools are well attended. 
In the large cities the public schools also have night classes, 
as we have said. 

But today it is not even necessary to go out of our homes 
to obtain some education. There are many correspondence 
schools in the country, which teach people by mail. After 


116 Training the Growing Citizen 

sending in his application, a person receives outlines for 
study in the subjects he desires. He writes out the answers 
and any questions he wants to ask, and sends them back. 
Teachers go over these papers and correct them, giving 
their criticisms. English, mathematics, history, science, 



A SCENE FROM A FAMOUS PAGEANT. 

At the celebration of the 300th anniversary of the landing of the 
Pilgrims at Plymouth the principal features of their whole story were 
represented. Here is the signing of the Mayflower Compact. So 
that more people could see it, this ceremony was “played” on land 
instead of on shipboard. 

languages, economics, many special features of business 
management, and even oratory are thus taught. In these 
schools older people, who would be embarrassed in a class 
with boys and girls younger than they, may take courses. 
They are enabled in this way to broaden their minds and fit 
themselves for better positions in business. 

Is there anything that can not be taught by correspondence? 

All these institutions have their places in the education 





Educational Agencies Outside the Schools 117 

of the people of our country. They give training for every 
vocation that people take up. When we add the educational 
work done by the organizations mentioned in the next 
section, we shall be convinced that it is usually a man's own 
fault if he does not make himself a good, intelligent citizen. 

58. Educational Agencies Outside the Schools. — Be¬ 
sides the schools, there are other agencies that educate the 
people. There are the public libraries, the newspapers and 
magazines, the museums, art galleries, and pageants, where 
people can learn by seeing what the past has produced 
as well as what the present has done. Churches help to 
educate the people morally and sometimes in other ways. 
Some theatres, where the great dramas and operas are 
produced, teach people a love of poetry and literature 
and music. Social settlements teach people what good 
living conditions are and how they may help maintain them. 

Do all theatres educate the people? Why or why not? 

The Y. M. C. A. is a wonderful factor in the welfare 
and uplift of many people. It offers evening courses in 
many branches, with good instructors in the various studies. 
The gymnasiums and swimming pools develop the boys 
physically, the reading rooms and libraries mentally, and 
the lectures, talks, and religious services, morally. The 
Knights of Columbus and the Y. M. H. A. do the same kind 
of work for the young men of their faiths. The Boy Scouts 
and the Girl Scouts also have an educational side to their 
work, though it is not their first aim. 

Many industries also carry on schools for their employees, 
where they can learn the subjects that will help them in 
their work in the industry, and become fitted for advance¬ 
ment. The managers of the industry find that it pays them 
as well as the employees to carry on these schools. The 
employees do better work and more of it because they un¬ 
derstand better the principles underlying their occupation. 

59. Libraries and How They Are Maintained. — The 
public library is a very important channel of education. 


118 Training the Growing Citizen 

After we have learned to read, the public libraries open to 
us wonderful fields of travel, adventure, romance, history, 
biography, science, and poetry. The library has shelves 
upon shelves filled with good books, and all within reach 
of the people, rich and poor alike. In large cities there 
are branch libraries, so that in every district or section the 
people can obtain all the reading matter they need or want. 



READING ROOM IN A GREAT PUBLIC LIBRARY. 

The public library in Boston is one of the finest in .the country. 
Its facilities for public use are very extensive. 


The libraries have quiet, comfortable reading rooms, and 
librarians to whom we can go for aid, and who are always 
willing to help find books or references. 

The library and the schools are very closely related. 
Pupils learn to look up references in other books than those 
used in school, and to make special reports from outside 
reading. In these matters, the library is invaluable to the 
school. In fact, in many places the libraries are coming to 












Libraries and How They are Maintained 119 

be looked upon as a part of the school. We have spoken of 
the “traveling libraries” which are sent around by some 
states from district to district, but most libraries are 
maintained chiefly by local taxation. Sometimes an en¬ 
dowment fund is left by a citizen, but this only partly 
covers the cost of keeping them up. Often a man who 
wishes to endow a library insists that a certain sum shall 
be given yearly by the town or city toward the maintenance 
of the library. By this means the librarians are trained 
and paid, and new books bought. The endowment of a 
library is one of the best things a citizen can do for his 
community. 

It is only fair that we should mention here the name of 
Andrew Carnegie. Many a town in this country would 
have no library today if it were not for his generosity. He 
made his money in the steel business, and some people 
think he could not have piled up his fortune without either 
paying his workers pitifully small wages, or charging the 
public unnecessarily high prices for his products. But 
whether his methods of getting wealth were right or wrong, 
he used it in a way that will help many a community for 
years and years to come. 

How much do you use your public library? Who established it and 
who maintains it? Do you think it could be made more useful than 
it is? 

We have also an institution which might fairly be called 
the nation’s library, though its official name is the Library 
of Congress. It is housed in a wonderfully beautiful 
building in Washington, and is one of the greatest libraries 
in the world. People who write or print books, magazine 
articles, music, photographs, and the like, may register 
their work at the Library of Congress, and obtain the sole 
right to publish it for twenty-eight years. At the end of 
that time, the copyright, as it is called, may be renewed for 
twenty-eight years more. Two copies of the publication 
must be deposited at the library. 


120 Training the Growing Citizen 

In this way, as well as by purchases and gifts, copies 
of everything of importance that is published in this country 
are provided; and there are many valuable old books, 
pictures, and other relics, which the Library has obtained 
in some way. Any one who wishes to use the Library has 
the privilege of doing so if he can go there. Congressmen, 
and sometimes other people who have special use for books, 
may be allowed to take books out of the Library. 



GETTING THE “COPY” INTO SHAPE. 

In this office various news items, dispatches and other news articles 
are edited before they go into type. 


60. Newspapers and Magazines.—Almost everybody 
who can read, reads the newspapers. We do not realize 
what a service they render, simply because we are so ac¬ 
customed to hearing the newsboys crying ‘ Taper!” or to 
nnding the Times or Sun on our porch every morning or 
evening. Newspapers collect and give out news from all 
over the world. If anything of importance happens in 
our own town, in New York, in London, or in Paris, our 










Newspapers and Magazines 121 


editors receive news of it in a very short time. The 
telegraph, telephone, ocean cable, and wireless make it 
possible for us to hear the news so quickly. 

It is through the newspapers that we discover what is 
going on in the world. We learn the names of prominent 
men and women, and what they are doing. Newspapers 
play an important part 
in .the formation of pub¬ 
lic opinion. They have 
more influence than any¬ 
thing else because their 
circulation is so wide. 

Sometimes they take 
advantage of their pow¬ 
er, and tell things that 
are not true. This often 
happens during political 
campaigns. News¬ 
papers are seldom non¬ 
partisan, and all too 
many of them are anx¬ 
ious to print anything 
that will influence the 
opinion and votes of the 
people. It is mostly the 
ignorant people who are 
influenced in this man¬ 
ner; so here again we see 
how important educa¬ 
tion is. We need good, 
broad-minded men and women on our newspaper staffs, in 
order to obtain accurate, fair news uninfluenced by cheap 
politics or anything else except the truth. 

But often we can tell from a person's conversation what 
newspaper he reads, because many newspapers are so 
biased, especially in politics, that they will twist even re- 


MAKING UP A NEWSPAPER. 

Type has already been set up for vari¬ 
ous advertisements and news reports. 
This man is arranging the forms accord¬ 
ing to the instructions which he has 
received. 






122 Training the Growing Citizen 

ports of events so that they will suggest something un¬ 
favorable to a candidate whom they do not like. Some¬ 
times, too, they do not print items which would be un¬ 
pleasant reading for a person or firm who advertises with 
them extensively. On the editorial page, the paper gives 
“not news, but views,” and the people can read this page 
with that understanding. But the news columns should 
give simply true accounts of what happens or what is said. 

Probably the days of editors who control public opinion 
as did Horace Greeley or Charles A. Dana or James Gordon 
Bennett are gone, but the power of the newspapers is still 
great. One or two of them sell more than a million copies 
daily, and many of them circulate widely hundreds of miles 
from the city where they are printed. Most papers, too, 
do not stop with printing the news. The sporting page, 
the women’s page, the would-be “comics,” the stories, the 
pictures, the cartoons, are surveyed with interest by read¬ 
ers, and the Sunday newspaper is a small library of trash, 
advertisements, and things of value. 

What are the newspapers which your family reads? Do they 
represent more than one party? What is the character of the papers 
published in or near your town? Do the “funny pictures” do any 
harm? How important are advertisements to a newspaper? What 
part of the newspapers do you spend the most time in reading? Are 
newspapers in foreign languages helpful or harmful? What is meant 
by propaganda ? For what purposes is it used, good or bad? 

The magazines cover a wide range, from those published 
merely for entertainment and amusement, to those which 
take up serious questions of the day, social problems, 
and the like. Many people who do not read books, read 
magazines. They are a very important educational agency. 
It has become common to use them in schools, to study 
“current events” or to obtain material for themes and talks 
in English, history, and the like. Of course, there are 
many whose standard is not very high, which contain low- 
class fiction, and misleading advertisements. These do 


Newspapers and Magazines 123 

little good in a community, but they make their appeal to 
people who are not very well educated, or have not very 
cultured tastes. 

But there are many magazines which are very much 
worth while. There are magazines dealing with the topics 
of the day. There are business-men's magazines, fashion 
magazines, housekeeping magazines, and those which 



THE MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON. 


publish good fiction. There are ladies' magazines, young 
folks' magazines, and religious publications.. It seems as 
if some magazines exist mainly for their advertising. The 
publisher charges well for advertising space, and the “ads” 
bring trade to those who advertise, so both the magazines 
and the advertisers are benefited. 

By reading good magazines thoughtfully, we can keep 
in touch with the events of the day, and with much of the 
good literature that is being written. But we need to 





124 


Training the Growing Citizen 


select our magazines with care. We ought to be sure that 
we are not being fed with worthless stuff, and that our taste 
for what is really good may be cultivated. 

Make a list of the magazines whose names you have seen or heard. 
Discuss the quality and value of each. What magazine would you 
take if you could have only one? Why? 

61. Public Educational Agencies.—In summarizing the 
work which our governments do for education, we may notice 
that its relation to this element of welfare is in a number of 
ways different from its connection with health or protection. 

(1) The national government has no authority over 
schools except in the District of Columbia and the terri¬ 
tories or colonies. It simply aids and advises the states 
and local communities. 

(2) The care of the schools in cities and towns is often, 
though not always, entirely separate from the other public 
activities. The school board in many states collects its 
own taxes and does not recognize a mayor or any other local 
officer as having the right to give it any instructions. 

Our table of officials who are connected with education 
will therefore look somewhat like this: 


LOCAL 

Board of Education 
School Directors 
or Trustees 

Sometimes Mayor, 
Council, or 
Judges appoint 
directors or approve 
tax laws 


STATE NATIONAL 

Governor President 

Department of Public Department of Interior 
Instruction Bureau of Education 

or of Education Commissioner 

Board of Regents (N.Y.) 

Superintendent Library of Congress 

or Commissioner United States Military 
State University or and Naval Academies 
College 

Bulletins with educational value are issued by 
other departments in the state or national 
government, and sold or given to the public. 


Make out a table for your own state and locality, so as to show the 
important facts about the organization of your schools, the names 
of leading officers, and the like. 


62. The Responsibility of the Citizen. — The part of our 


The Responsibility of the Citizen 125 

lives which we spend in school is at least as important as 
that of any other community to which we belong. School 
is not merely a preparation for life. It is life itself. The 
training which pupils get here will help them in whatever 
else they do all their lives. 

Many students are indifferent to their work. They waste 
their time and do not try to attend regularly, or to learn 
their lessons. Don’t you think such people will act the 
same way toward their work when they are out of school? 
They will seldom get very far ahead in anything. Pupils who 
are eager to learn, and interested in their studies, are the 
ones who will be in line for promotion after they start in any 
business or profession or industry. But even those pupils can 
not do their best work when they are interrupted or the class 
is disturbed by lazy, careless, or trouble-making neighbors. 

Pupils can help the work of the school greatly by showing 
respect and obedience to their teachers and principals. Too 
many of us think that teachers are some sort of machine 
and can not be hurt or worried, or tired out like other people. 
But they are just as human as the pupils, and like to be 
treated as well. They are ready and willing to help the 
young folks in their work and their play, and their interest 
in the pupils will increase if they are respected and con¬ 
sidered by the pupils as friends. 

Another matter in which the pupils can help is that of 
keeping the buildings and school property in good condition. 
It seems to give some pupils great pleasure to while away 
a study hour by carving initials and pictures on the desks, 
and writing and drawing in the text books. You would 
not do this kind of thing on your library table at home. 
Why, then, in school? And why do so many students love to 
draw beards on the chins of prominent statesmen and gen¬ 
erals in their text books? Unless you have bought the 
books yourself, these are the property of the community 
and you have no more right to deface them than a book you 
might borrow from a neighbor. 


126 


Training the Growing Citizen 


Then some boys and girls are not careful of the school 
grounds or of those belonging to people near the school. It 
is a common occurrence for school authorities to receive 
complaints from the people of the neighborhood concerning 
the students’ lack of respect for other people’s property. 
There are always receptacles for rubbish somewhere near 
the school or on the grounds, and it is just as easy to walk 
on the pavement as on somebody’s lawn. A school with 



Courtesy Junior Red Cross 
TURNING WASTE TO GOOD ACCOUNT. 


These boys collected and sold newspapers and magazines to help 
the needy who were being aided through the Junior Red Cross. They 
did this as a part of their school work. 

well-kept grounds will add much to the attractiveness of a 
neighborhood, and its pupils will be well thought of in the 
community. 

Make a list of the acts or conditions you have noticed around your 
school building or grounds which are not as they should be. How 
can these conditions be remedied? 

But the public, as well as the pupils, has its responsibility 
concerning the schools. People should take an interest in 






The Responsibility of the Citizen 127 


the schools and what is taught in them. The public can do 
a great deal for the schools, and the schools for the public. 
The people of a community can afford to pay generously 
to support the schools. When a community contributes 
willingly for more and better schools, better teachers and 
equipment and grounds, we can have school buildings that 
add to the attractiveness of the town, a school life that is 
helpful and happy, and well educated young citizens in 
whom all can take pride. 

Cooperation between the schools and industries has 
come to be a very valuable feature of education in a number 
of communities. Industrial and business concerns keep 
in touch with the schools, and in this way can often be 
supplied with workers either outside of school hours or after 
the completion of school work. The schools endeavor to 
teach the pupils what will be most useful later, and the 
students can obtain good positions, often with opportunity 
for advancement, after they leave school. Part-time courses 
in the schools are becoming frequent. Cincinnati, 0., 
Fitchburg, Mass., and some other places, have made much 
of this kind of work. The pupil goes to school a week, 
and then works a week or two, while another pupil ex¬ 
changes places with him. This plan helps some pupils 
to stay in school longer than they could otherwise remain. 
For those who like to work with their hands, such courses 
are rather attractive. 

The community’s schools are not a one-man affair, or even 
the business of the school board alone. To make them suc¬ 
cessful, it is necessary to have every individual doing all he 
can to help them along. When school board, parents, pu¬ 
pils, and townspeople all feel that the schools are their 
schools, and when all not only feel an interest, but show an 
interest in them, any community can have schools of which 
it will be proud. 

Are the people of your community thoroughly interested in the 
schools? How do they show their interest or lack of it? 


128 


Training the Growing Citizen 


QUESTIONS 

Why do we need education? Why do we have public schools? 

What part of education is done by national government, state 
governments, and local governments? How does the state manage 
the schools? Explain the work of the local school board. What is a 
school district? a consolidated school? 

Explain the laws in regard to school attendance in your district. 
At what age may a pupil leave and for what reason? What are con¬ 
tinuation schools? 

How much money do we spend on education? From what sources 
does this money come? What are the principal features of up-to-date 
sehool buildings? Can a school building be of any value to others 
than school pupils? Mention other agencies that can cooperate with 
the schools? What subjects are or should be taught in the schools? 
Compare school courses today with those of a half century ago. 

Mention the principal features in school systems in England, France, 
and Germany. Mention the different kinds of private institutions for 
education. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of private 
schools with those of public schools. State the chief features of the 
work of colleges. How are colleges and universities supported? By 
what means may a person who has left public school continue his 
education? 

How does a library serve a community? How is a library sup¬ 
ported? Describe the Congressional Library. What is a copy¬ 
right? Of what benefit are newspapers? Of what harm? Mention 
the various kinds of magazines. 

What mistakes are sometimes made by pupils in school? How 
may pupils aid in making the school work successful? What dees 
the public owe to the public schools? Do people in general take 
enough interest in them? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Location of Our School Buildings. (If you live in a large city 
make a map to show this.) 

How Our Schools Can Be Made More Useful to the Community. 

When Is a Man Educated? 

Schools for Foreigners. 

Educating the Mountain Whites. 

Truants and What to Do with Them. 

Resolved, that our state laws should require all persons to obtain ,1 
high sehool education or its equivalent. 

Resolved, that pupils in junior and senior high schools should fur¬ 
nish their own text books. 


Themes and Exercises 


129 


Who Should Go to College and Who Should Not. 

The Newspapers of Our Community. 

The Best Magazines for Us to Read. 

Resolved, that the public school is preferable to the private school, 
except for those who are disabled. 

Colleges and Universities in Our State. 

Student Government in Schools. 

Clubs and Societies in Schools. 

Business Colleges. 

An Ideal School Building. 

An Ideal Teacher. 

Getting Money for Our Public Schools. 

How to Make the Library Most Useful. 

Museums and Art Galleries. 

Resolved, that every boy and girl in high school should take at least 
one year of manual work. 

School Subjects that Every Pupil Should Study. 

Why I Should Like (or not Like) to be a Teacher. 


CHAPTER V 

PROVIDING RECREATION 


Sweet recreation barred, what doth ensue 
But moody and dull melancholy, 

Kinsman to grim and comfortless despair? — Shakespeare. 


63. What is Recreation? — Let us be sure what we are 
talking about, for some people seem to think that recreation 
means wildly rushing about in an effort to get enjoyment. 
“ Recreation” comes from a Latin word that means re-creat¬ 
ing—that is, making over or renewing. It means restoring 
something that has been lost or building something anew. 
Every activity of a person uses up his strength and energy, 
and these must be built up again if his work is to go on. To 
secure the highest standard of work, provisions for recrea¬ 
tion must be made. 

Merely stopping work may not be recreation. Most 
people, especially those who are accustomed to working, 
find it hard to do nothing. They need activity of some 
kind. Neither is it recreation to indulge in things that we 
know are not good for us to do regularly. 

Recreation may consist of exercise, rest, or change. A 
person who pores over books in an office all day needs 
physical activity to rebuild the energy and tissue that he 
has used. People who do physical labor need rest or some 
exercise of the mind. To these people, reading may be very 
enjoyable and helpful. Often, to those people who like 
to be busy, a change of activity is all that is necessary. 
Different kinds of work rest these people and renew their 
energy. 


130 



What Is Recreation? 


131 


In the last few years, the length of the working day has 
been shortened very greatly. This gives the people more 
time for recreation. How shall they spend this time? This 
problem confronts every village and city. Its importance 
is being recognized more and more, and provisions are now 
being made by every progressive community for the relaxa¬ 
tion and pleasure of the people. 

Do you like to loaf? How long? 

64. Who Needs Recreation? —The question is not a 
hard one to answer. Every one of us needs it. Some of us 



Courtesy Bureau of Construct on and lieyair 


A GOOD TIME ON THE “NORTH DAKOTA.’’ 

Our naval officers know how desirable it is for their boys to feel con¬ 
tented and so they give them opportunities for recreation. 

think that older people need rest more than young people 
because they have not so much vitality. But we must 
remember that the vitality of the children must not be 
wasted if they are to have good health later. They have 
to grow as well as simply to keep alive. It is true that older 
people usually work harder, and need relaxation in order 




132 


Providing Recreation 


to keep up their health and energy. But play is the birth¬ 
right of every boy and girl, and our communities are trying 
to provide sufficient safe places for all the children to 
play. 

If people were forced to work all the time, except when 
eating or sleeping, tneir minds would be dull and their 
physical growth hampered. They would be dissatisfied 
and discon tented with their neighbors, their work, and 
their government. These people are always ready to listen 
to any wild proposition which they think will give them 
more pleasure. It is among these people that disturbers 
stir up the most trouble. If the community is going to be 
quiet and orderly, it must provide its people with a certain 
amount of recreation. 

What is likely to be the effect on a business man if he thinks about 
business most of the time when he is at home? Do your parents and 
other older friends like to play? What recreation do they seem to 
enjoy most? Make a list of the kinds of recreation that seem to suit 
people at different ages. Is it good or bad to have recesses during 
the school day? What are the legal holidays in your state? Who 
determines them? 

Do farmers and their families need recreation as well 
as city folks? Indeed they do. Farm work is often a 
tiresome routine, doing the same things day after day, 
though there are certain seasons when a great deal must 
be done in a few days. Surely an occasional change would 
be a blessing. 

Sometimes, too, farm life seems lonely, even though the 
telephone has done much to remove this objection. Some 
outings that would take all the people away from their 
regular work and bring them together for a good time would 
be a splendid thing for them. A community picnic is an 
occasion which almost everybody would enjoy, and the 
Gounty fair, held in the early fall, is and ought to be a big 
event in many a farming district. Perhaps if more atten¬ 
tion had been given to this matter, we should not find so 


Places to Play 133 

many boys and girls wanting to leave the farm and go to 
town. 

65. Places to Play. — “Why bother about playgrounds 
when we have all outdoors?” some one may ask. But 
not even the farm boy or girl has quite “all outdoors” as a 
playground, and in large cities that are built up closely, 
the problem of getting sufficient playing room for people is 
very serious. If the children play on the streets, they are 
in constant danger from vehicles, and are very much in 
the way of other people. Then there is the danger of bad 



A STREET AND PLAYGROUND COMBINED. 

Notice how narrow this street is. Yet children play there con¬ 
stantly for they have nowhere else to go. 


companionship. On the streets, in vacant lots and alleys 
there is ample opportunity for bad influence. In some 
districts almost everybody swears, cheats, and steals. 

To prevent these dangers, and to provide safe places for 
recreation and enjoyment, almost all cities and towns now 
have playgrounds, though often nowhere nearly enough. 
Some communities are obliged to have at least one play¬ 
ground for every 20,000 people. In certain places, whole 
blocks of old buildings have been tom down, and the lots 






134 


Providing Recreation 



used for playgrounds. In other places, when the lots are 
being marked off, room is allowed for playgrounds at certain 
intervals. This shows that people are beginning to realize 
that something in this line must be done. 

Sometimes the playgrounds are conducted in connection 
with the schools. This is a very good way, because some 
schools have large yards which are not used for any other 
purpose, and these afford a splendid place for the children 


A FINE PUBLIC PLAYGROUND. 

This field in Seattle offers means of recreation to both old and young. 

to play. In some places, as soon as the school day is over, 
the playground is opened, and a playground teacher takes 
charge, who supervises and conducts the children’s games 
and activities. The schools are situated at convenient 
places, where all the children can play safely after school 
hours or on holidays. 

In many communities there are other playgrounds be¬ 
sides those operated in connection with the schools. These 






135 


Places to Play 

are often established in the sections of cities that need some¬ 
thing of the kind. The slum districts have special need 
for playgrounds. Here there should be football fields, 
baseball diamonds, tennis courts, and the like. Swings, 
slides, sandpiles, and see-saws are a delight to the young- 



HIGH SCHOOL STADIUM AT SAN DIEGO. 

This affords opportunity not only for outdoor athletics but for 
every form of public gathering. Thirty thousand people can be 
seated in this stadium. 

sters, and many kinds of games are conducted by the play¬ 
ground teacher or supervisor. 

Are parks a good place to have playgrounds? 

Sometimes buildings are erected in connection with these 
community playgrounds. These may contain swimming 
pools, gymnasiums, libraries, reading rooms, club rooms, 
bowling alleys and billiard rooms, and auditoriums. Such 
a place may be called a community center. Here people 



136 


Providing Recreation 


can come during the evenings for reading or amusements. 
Public meetings and lectures can be held here, and in this 
way, people can meet and enjoy other people's society. 

The playgrounds are not perfect by any means. There 
is still much to be done before the playgrounds will be of 
the greatest good in the communities. Better supervision 
would doubtless increase the good done by the playgrounds. 



A FLOWER GARDEN IN A CITY PARK AT DENVER. 


In many places the teachers have little authority over the 
children. Sometimes rowdyish boys make it very hard for 
the person in charge, and under the leadership of such boys 
the others are likely to be unmanageable and to make the 
playground a nuisance to the entire neighborhood. As far 
as we have the chance, we ought to help prevent this kind 
of thing. 

Is there a playground in your community? Do you think it does 
any good? What kind of equipment does it have? Would you like 
to be in charge of a playground? Is it desirable to have a swimming 
pool as part of a playground? 










Parks and Their Services 


137 


66. Parks and Their Services. — In almost every city 
we find parks. Sometimes there are small “squares” in 
different parts of the cities. These afford a breathing space 
for the business people, and add to the beauty of the city. 
In these squares there may be flowers, and perhaps foun¬ 
tains, and benches where the people may rest. Larger than 
the squares are the city parks. These are established for 
the same purpose as the squares. Sometimes they contain 
a small lake where there is rowing or perhaps swimming 
in summer, and skating in winter. These are of the greatest 
good if they are in or near the crowded parts of the cities, 
but they need not be exactly in the business sections. 

Besides these, there are large parks, ranging from twenty 
to three thousand acres of land. Some of these are left 
in somewhat their natural condition, except that the trees 
and grounds are cared for and improved. Sometimes the 
parks are entirely artificial. There are usually good roads 
for automobiles, paths and walks for pedestrians, benches 
and swings, and a lake where people can row or canoe, and 
ice-skate. Sometimes the reservoirs containing the city’s 
water are in the parks. Occasionally some citizen leaves 
a tract of land to the city for the establishment of a park, 
but many of them are established by the community itself. 

The popular “Zoo” is a never failing source of interest 
to the people. The old folks will not always admit it, but 
they like to go as well as the young. Many city parks con¬ 
tain Zoological Gardens and Botanical Gardens where 
people may go to laugh at the monkeys or to learn some¬ 
thing about many kinds of animal and plant life. In these 
places the plants and animals are often put into surround¬ 
ings as nearly as possible like those in which they would 
naturally live. 

Our parks are a wonderful help in recreation. They 
permit us to leave the city streets and, for a short time, 
forget our work and worries, and see at least a part of 
nature. They afford places for all kinds of picnics and 


138 


Providing Recreation 


pleasure parties, as well as pleasant drives for autoists. It 
is well to leave room, in the building up of our large cities, 
for these parks which make life so much more pleasant for 
the people. 

Describe some park which you have visited in another town. Is 
your community well supplied with parks? Do you need them? 

67. The National Parks. — Our nation and a few of the 
states, as well as the cities, have provided several parks. 
These are usually the parts of the country that contain 
natural wonders and beauties. Some are maintained be¬ 
cause of some important historical event. Chickamauga, 
Valley Forge, and Gettysburg are examples of these. Among 
the important national parks we may mention three in 
particular—Yellowstone National Park, Glacier National 
Park, and Yosemite National Park. The national parks 
are under the control of the Department of the Interior. 

It would be a shame to allow these places to be destroyed, 
or used by unscrupulous men for their own selfish interests; 
so these playgrounds of the world are maintained by the 
government for the people. Among other wonders are 
geysers, glaciers, waterfalls, and giant trees. It is true that 
these great parks do not play such an important part in the 
lives of so many people as the city parks do, but thousands 
of tourists go every year to see these wonder spots which 
can not be equaled anywhere. 

68. Recreation for the Mind. — To people who do 
physical work all day, and to some others as well, games, 
sports, and the like may not appeal very much. They 
may enjoy more quiet forms of recreation. The libraries 
which have been mentioned as an educational agency af¬ 
ford recreation to many people who can spend a delightful 
hour with a good book. There are also museums which 
contain strange and wonderful things from all over the 
world, and art galleries, public gardens, and the like. A 
few communities maintain municipal theatres, where only 


Private Agencies for Recreation 139 

high-class plays are given. But these are more numerous 
in Europe than in this country. Some ambitious communi¬ 
ties organize pageants to celebrate the history of the town 
or some notable event. These are often both entertaining 
and instructive. 

What kind of people are most likely to be interested in libraries,, 
museums, and art galleries? Are you? Why? Would there be any 
objection to a municipal theatre in your community? 

69. Private Agencies for Recreation. — Besides the 
agencies maintained by the community as a whole to pro- 



THE STAGE OF AN OPEN AIR THEATRE. 

This theatre at the University of California is constructed as- 
nearly as possible after the pattern of the old Greek theatres. Recre¬ 
ation and culture of a high order may be afforded in places of this, 
kind. In some communities where outdoor theatres would be im¬ 
practicable “little theatres” have been built by the community 
for giving high class entertainments. 


vide recreation and relaxation for the people, there are many 
private agencies which perform the same service. Plays, 
concerts, and lectures afford people a means of recreation 
that is often profitable and enjoyable. Music plays a very 
important part in our lives. In many large cities there are 
opera houses where people may go to hear noted singers 










140 Providing Recreation 

and musicians. The theatres are usually crowded with 
pleasure-seeking people, and many plays, some good and 
some bad, are presented. 

Some organizations exist chiefly to provide the people 
with recreation. The Scout organizations are formed 
partly for this purpose. For the boys and girls in the 
country there are, as we have noticed, com clubs, canning 
clubs, and the like, which help their members to learn 
something, to earn something, and to enjoy themselves 
all at the same time. The older people have dozens of 



ORCHESTRA AND SEATS OF THE OPEN AIR THEATRE AT THE 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 


lodges, orders, and associations. The Masons, the Odd 
Fellows, the Knights of Pythias, the National Grange, the 
Elks, the Moose, are examples of these. Their object is 
chiefly to bring men together so that they may be sociable 
and enjoy each other’s company. But some of them pay 
benefits when a member is sick, and help their members in 
various other ways. 

In furnishing recreation under good surroundings, the 
Y. M. C. A., the K. of C., and the Y. M. H. A., as we have 
seen, are of great service to men. Many churches also do 









Travel and Its Value 


141 


much to supply a happy social life for the members of their 
congregations, old and young. 

Other means by which people get recreation are carried 
on solely for the profit that the manager gets. Many a 
so-called “park” is just a place where a person can get rid 
of his money easily, usually to make himself foolish or risk 
his life on a “Dip the Dips,” in an “Old Mill,” or something 
of the kind. The crowds that go to such places, especially 
in the summer, must think they have a good time, however, 
or else we should not suppose they would waste their 
money in that way. One hundred thousand persons or 
more have gone to Coney Island or Revere Beach in one 
day, and the cars that take people there are jammed to 
overflowing. 

Why do some churches like to furnish recreation for their people? 
Are professional baseball games valuable to a community for purposes 
of recreation? Are the victrola and “jazz” music of any real value? 
What is a “community sing”? 

70. Travel and Its Value. — Travel is one of the best 
ways of obtaining education and recreation. There are 
various means of travel—by railroad, automobile, boat, on 
horseback, and—some day it will be common—by airplane. 
Of these, the railroad and the automobile are the most 
popular and usual. All of us have a desire to see the world 
to learn what things are like outside of our own community. 
Traveling gives us pleasure and rest, if not done in too much 
of a hurry, and at the same time we learn innumerable 
things we could not learn at home. 

A trip over the United States is almost an education in 
itself. “See America First,” says one railroad. There 
are the wonderful national parks, there are lofty mountains 
and broad prairies, and forests old before Columbus was 
bom. It is unfortunate that more of us do not have an 
opportunity to visit these places. More of us could do so, 
if we would lay away part of the money we spend at the 
“movies.” 


142 


Providing Recreation 


Would you like to travel? What place or places would you especi¬ 
ally desire to see? Why? What good would it do you? 

71. The “Movies” and Their Effects.—But 0, the 
movies! What other form of entertainment was ever so 
popular! To the “Liberty” or the “Regent” or the “Grand” 
the children must go after school and on holidays! In the 
evenings the moving picture houses are crowded to the 
doors. Hundreds of thousands of people go to them every 



MT. TAMALPAIS, CALIFORNIA. 

A remarkable view is afforded from the summit of this elevation. 
It is reached by a many-curved railroad or automobile road. 


day. Charlie Chaplin and Mary Pickford pay income 
taxes every year mounting far into the thousands of dollars. 

The moving picture shows can, no doubt, be a beneficial 
form of amusement. Sometimes, however, they show 
pictures that are not true to life. Young people are very 
impressionable, and they are influenced by what they see. 
In order to have only good pictures shown, there is in 
some states a Board of Censors. In addition to these, there 
is a national Board of Censors. This is not, however, 
maintained by the government but by the film producers. 




Social Settlements 


143 


These do something to raise the standard of the pictures 
that are presented, by deciding what shall be changed, or 
whether a picture shall be wholly rejected or not. 

Some people object to moving pictures because of the 
distorted ideas of life that they suggest. Others insist the 
movies make the young people unable to use their minds 
because everything is ex¬ 
plained and pictured for 
them. Still others say that 
the people get the “movie 
habit” and go all too often, 
spending money that ought 
to be saved, or even used 
for clothes or food. We 
shall have to admit that 
many of these charges are 
true. The movies have 
been called our national 
craze. They can be, and 
sometimes are, useful, and 
for most people, enjoyable. 

But, like everything else 
which is good, we should 
indulge in the movies mod¬ 
erately. 

What kind of pictures do you 
like best? Do moving pictures 
hurt your eyes? How often do 
you go to them? With whom do you go? Do the pictures make you 
nervous or tired? Are the movies rightly called “the poor man’s 
theatre”? 

72. Social Settlements. — The social settlements do a 
wonderful work in the poorer sections of our cities. The 
social settlement houses are open to all, and all sorts of 
games and recreation are carried on. There are reading 
rooms, and sometimes baths and swimming pools. It is 







144 Providing Recreation 

surprising how many people do not know the first thing 
about personal cleanliness. The settlement workers do not 
consider giving advice the highest aim of their undertaking. 
They give it whenever there is an opportunity, however. 
These institutions help to set up higher standards of moral¬ 
ity and of living, and to offset the harmful influence of the 
streets. 

73. Using Our Leisure Rightly. —Almost every person 
has a different idea of a “good time.” Some people enjoy 



ANOTHER TYPE OF MOVIE-HOUSE. 


going out a great deal, indulging in those kinds of recreation 
which require considerable activity. Others like best to 
have a quiet time at home with a book or a magazine, or 
something of the kind. A picnic in the Park or on Crystal 
Rock, or a ride in a motor boat is all that some people need 
to be perfectly happy. 

But with most of us, to “have a good time” means, in the 
long run, work and pleasure combined. We may not 
think that work is a pleasure, but we should become very 
tired of a life that was one long vacation, with nothing to do 
but amuse ourselves. When we have work to do, we 








145 


Using Our Leisure Rightly 

appreciate our pleasure more. And when we do amuse 
ourselves, it will be well if some of the time we try to have 
amusement that has benefit in it as well as mere pleasure. 

There are some amusements which are distinctly harm¬ 
ful. Gambling in any form is certainly detrimental. Be¬ 
sides risking money, it puts all kinds of games and sports, 
and even political affairs, in a bad light. All sorts of 
bribery and evil influences 
have resulted from gambling 
and betting. The great 
game of baseball which mil¬ 
lions of Americans enjoy so 
much has been stained seri¬ 
ously by players who threw 
away games because gam¬ 
blers paid them to do so. 

Then there are the pool 
rooms. The game itself is all 
right, and affords people 
pleasure, but the environ¬ 
ment in public pool rooms is 
usually not elevating. Many 
boys and men spend their 
time in such places when 
they could be using their 
leisure in a more helpful way. 

Exercise outdoors would usu¬ 
ally be much more beneficial 
to them. Ladies, too, often become so deeply interested in 
playing cards for valuable prizes that the effect on their 
tempers, their nerves, and sometimes their honesty, is very 
bad. 

We have, too, the public dance hall. Many boys and 
girls like to dance, and do not seem to be harmed by it. 
But you never know what you are getting into when you 
go to one of these places which is conducted to make money. 



Late Evenings -^feary Mornings 


Go To Bed Early 
Have A Fixed Bedtime 
Get Up Promptly 

SLEEP 

Is As Needful As Food 


Copyright, National Child We fare Association 

UNPROFITABLE HABITS. 





146 Providing Recreation 

Many a person has found company there that brought 
ruin to body and soul in the end. A few communities 
have arranged for municipal dance halls and skating 
rinks, strictly supervised, to permit this kind of social 
activity under proper regulations. But others hesitate to 
promote these things publicly, and still others do not 
realize the dangers from which some of their young people 
suffer. 



A SCENE ON BOSTON COMMON. 


Make a list of the amusements engaged in by people whom you 
know which you think are harmful; of those which are helpful; of 
those which have no noticeable effect either way. Give your reasons 
in each case. 

What shall the boys and girls do after school? They 
need recreation, certainly, but it is a question whether they 
need to play all the time when they are not in school or doing 
school work. It is often better for them to have some 
responsibility, some work, so that they will be accustomed 




147 


Using Our Leisure Rightly 

to working, and can more easily take up their duties in the 
world when they are older. 

Outdoor exercise is beneficial after the school day is over. 
Any games that are played outside will renew the energy 
of boys and girls and rest their minds, provided they do not 
let themselves become unduly excited over them, or are so 
anxious to win as to cheat some one else. In winter coasting 
and ice-skating are splendid for health and good spirits, 
and in summer there are baseball games, tennis, swimming, 
and the like. One of the great reasons why “daylight 
saving” is popular in our cities is that it gives an extra hour 
after the day's work is done, for people to get out in the open 
air and play, ride, walk., or just sit still and enjoy the sum¬ 
mer evening. 

What do you do after school in summer? in winter? Do you know 
boys and girls who earn their way through school or college? What 
do they do to earn money? Are they worse off for doing this? 

Why do most farmers dislike “daylight saving”? 

Another matter on which there is a great difference of 
opinion is that of vacations. All over the country there are 
resorts of various kinds, each one of which makes its appeal 
to some people. There are ocean resorts, lake resorts, 
mountain resorts, health resorts, and others. 

Some of us like to spend our vacations in the country 
where there is fishing or perhaps hunting. Others see no 
enjoyment whatever in sitting still in a boat for hours, or 
tramping through the woods, but find pleasure in going to 
one of the large resorts, where there are many lectures, 
concerts, shows, and dances. Some enjoy the mountains, 
others the resorts on lakes or rivers. People who can afford 
to travel visit the national parks and other interesting 
places, and many more take trips to the large cities. This 
is a matter of individual taste, and we should all use our 
judgment in deciding how to spend our vacation in order to 
get the most out of it. 

Why would you or would you not like a vacation at Atlantic City? 


148 


Providing Recreation 


A complete change is beneficial. The editor of one farm 
paper advocates that country people should spend their 
vacations in the city, seeing the sights, going to theatres, 
"‘movies” and the like, and having a change in every way. 
At the end of two weeks he thinks they will probably be 
ready to go back to the quiet life of the farm. Some farm 
boys, however, like nothing so well as to get out in the 
woods where they can fish or hunt to their hearts’ content. 



A RECREATION PLACE FOR THOUSANDS. 

Atlantic City is a favorite resort for those who like the kind of 
recreation it affords. Do you enjoy recreation when so many hurt 
dreds or thousands of other people are around? 

City people in particular will often find that a quiet place, 
with good fresh air and food, and plenty of time for sleep, 
and just enough “going on” to keep them from becoming 
bored, will do wonders in restoring their health and energy. 
To hustle wildly around trying to see how many “affairs” 
and places one can go to in two weeks, may leave him 
more tired than when he started. Perhaps you have heard 





149 


Who Shall Be Responsible? 


people say jokingly that it takes them a month to get rested 
from their vacation, but all too often that is the real truth. 

74. Who Shall Be Responsible? — Our governments 
do perhaps less to provide recreation than to promote any 
of the other elements of welfare which we have thus far 
studied. The following table mentions most of the agencies 
which have any direct relation to this need of our communi¬ 
ties. 


LOCAL STATE 

Governor 

Department of Inter¬ 
nal Affairs 

Department of High¬ 
ways 


NATIONAL 

President 

Department of Inter¬ 
ior 

National Park Service 


Mayor 

Department of Public 
Works 

Bureau of Parks Library of Congress 

Playground officials 
(perhaps under Board 
of Education) 

Trustees of Public 
Library 

Make out a similar table for your own state and locality. 

As we have seen, the greater part of the management of 
the means of recreation is conducted by private associations 
of various kinds. Since every private organization is 
simply a group of citizens, the success which their efforts 
to supply recreation will have, and the amount of good 
they will do, depends upon what each member thinks and 
does about it. Most people probably have less feeling of 
responsibility for the recreation of the community than for 
any other of the movements we have taken up. But there 
is something we can all do. 

It is a fact that in communities where various means of 
recreation are provided, there has been a decided dropping 
off in crime and various kinds of mischief. So we can well 
give our aid, in time, interest, and money, to the establish¬ 
ment of parks, playgrounds, gymnasiums, libraries, and the 
like. It is much more profitable to do this than to spend 
so much for the support of police forces, prisons, and 


150 


Providing Recreation 


juvenile courts. This is another case of preventing evil 
instead of having to control it after it has happened. 

In our own sports and games, too, whether they are at 
school, on the public playground, at home, or with our 
friends anywhere, we can always be fair and honest. We 
can be clean and courteous, even when the game is exciting. 
We can be “good sports” when we lose and refrain from 
being disagreeable when we win. Rowdyism and crooked* 



SETTING-UP EXERCISES AT AN ARMY CAMP. 

The movements which these soldiers are commanded to perform are 
intended to keep them in good physical condition. 


ness should be unknown among decent boys and girls. We 
can seek such recreation as will make us better for taking 
part in it. The right kinds of recreation make us and the 
community happier and healthier in mind and body, and 
build strong, capable, honorable citizens. 

What kinds of people do you dislike to be associated with in sports? 
What kind do you like? 




Themes and Exercises 


151 


QUESTIONS 

Define recreation. Mention several kinds. Who needs recrea¬ 
tion? Compare the opportunities of city and country for recreation. 
Of what use are playgrounds? How should they be managed? 

What is a park? What kinds of parks are there? What services 
do they render? What and where are our national parks? 

Mention some forms of recreation for the mind. Name the most 
important private agencies for recreation. Which of these are con¬ 
ducted for profit? Of what value is travel? Explain the influence 
of moving pictures on the life of people to-day. 

Explain the work of the settlement house. 

What is meant by a “good time”? Mention some forms of amuse¬ 
ment that are distinctly harmful; some that are distinctly beneficial. 
What different types of vacations are there? Is there any relation 
between recreation and crime? 


THEMES AND EXERCISES 

Holidays and How They Should Be Observed. 

Recesses and Their Use. 

Theaters and Their Influence. 

The Games of Greece and Rome. 

Where Playgrounds are Needed in Our Community. 

Our National Parks. 

Resolved, that dancing should be taught in our public schools. 

An Ideal Vacation For Me. 

What Our Community Ought To Celebrate. 

School Socials. 

Social Life in the Churches. 

Resolved, that the moving picture theater does more harm than 
good. 

Resolved, that professional baseball is a benefit to the American 
people. 

Sports for Young and for Old. 

A Trip I Shall Never Forget. 

A Community Christmas Tree. 

The Parks of Our Community. 

The Farmer’s Vacation. 

Recreation for the Farm Boy and Girl. 

Resolved, that athletic contests between schools should be abolished. 
Would a Community Theater Be Beneficial to Us? 

Pageants and Their Uses. 


CHAPTER VI 


PLANNING THE COMMUNITY 


Man's invention built the cities. — Varro. 


75. Cities Planned and Not Planned. —It is easy to 
believe that the highways of some of our cities follow the 
lines of old cow-paths. Visitors often are completely be¬ 
wildered in a strange place because of the irregular, winding, 
or crooked streets. It is usually the older cities that are so 
irregular, because the idea of planning a community before 
it is built up is a comparatively new one. 

Several of our large cities, however, were at least partially 
planned beforehand. Our national capital was planned by 
a Frenchman, Major L’Enfant, before a single building was 
erected. The Capitol is the center of the plan. The 
streets are laid out on the “checkerboard” plan, that is, 
streets running north and south intersecting at right angles 
with those running east and west. To vary the monotony 
of this scheme, and to promote convenience in going from 
one place to another, there are long avenues, some beginning 
at the Capitol and running to the outside of the city, like 
spokes in a wheel, and others cutting across elsewhere. 
These are named for the different states. Sometimes where 
they intersect the streets, there are little “circles” or parks 
which add greatly to the beauty of the city. When the 
plan is once understood, Washington seems convenient 
and easy to get around in, as well as very beautiful. 

Philadelphia, at least the part between the Delaware and 
the Schuylkill rivers, is also laid out on the checkerboard 




Cities Planned and Not Planned 153 



plan, and the new parts of New York have the same system. 
When streets are numbered 100 to a block, as is usually 
the case in cities in the central and western states, even 
strangers find it easy to go directly to their destinations. 

Pittsburgh and Boston are examples of cities that “just 
grew.” Pittsburgh is at a disadvantage because, situated 
as it is at the junction of two rivers, with the hills rising 


THE CITY OF WASHINGTON. 

This remarkable picture, taken by the Army Air Service, gives a 
good idea of the general plan of the city. The Capitol is near the 
center. At its right are the House of Representatives office build¬ 
ing and the Congressional Library. Beyond it are the Senate office 
building and the Union Station. 

so close to the rivers, there is no plan practicable for it. 
Boston is noted for its crooked, narrow streets, and it is most 
confusing to strangers to try to find their way around. 

Make out a plan for an ideal city; a plan for a community at your 
own location if it were to be laid out newly. 

What systems of street names are in use in any communities that 
you know? What system would you use if you were planning a town? 




154 Planning the Community 

By aril means make a large map of your own community, and in¬ 
dicate on it all the main streets and every other place of public in¬ 
terest. Add more entries from time to time as new topics are taken 
up. 

76. The Objects of Community Planning. — What are 
the reasons why there should be careful consideration and 
thought concerning the plans of communities? Why can’t 
we let them take their own course? 

When this is permitted, streets naturally grow up along 
the former roads. These are usually laid out where it is 



AN ATTRACTIVE BOULEVARD. 

Notice its width, and the well-kept asphalt pavement. 


the easiest to do so, even though many turns and curves 
result. Side streets and cross streets are gradually opened 
just where it happens to seem convenient to have them. 
And what is the result? That it takes much longer than is 
necessary to get from one place to another, following these 
winding thoroughfares, and that public buildings or places 
of business can not be centrally located. Convenience, 
then, is one object of community planning. 

Health is another object. Unless other provision is 
made, the poorer people may all crowd into one little sec- 




Planning in Smaller Communities 155 

tion. The narrow streets will finally be lined with irregular, 
tumble-down old houses. Cities must be planned to allow 
sufficient room for their people in order to prevent this 
overcrowding and its inevitable result. For under such 
conditions, it will be impossible for people to keep from 
getting their neighbors’ diseases and vices. 

A third object is beauty. We will all agree that wide 
streets either straight or artistically curved, placed regularly 
throughout a city, improve greatly the beauty of it, and the 
people who live in a city are always proud of it if it is well 
planned and attractive. Buildings, too, can be placed and 
constructed so as to add much to the appearance of the 
town. 

Does your community meet these three requirements of community 
planning? Do other communities that you know? 

What objection might be offered to the checkerboard plan? How 
could this be met? What do you think of a city plan arranged like a 
spider web? Study the plans of several cities with reference to the 
points mentioned in this section. 

77. Planning in Smaller Communities. — The problem 
of community planning is somewhat different in villages 
and country districts than in the city, though the purposes 
to be sought are the same. It is sometimes easier to plan 
properly a community of not more than a few thousand 
people than a big city. In such places the checkerboard 
system is used to some extent, often with a public square in 
the center of the town. 

In the Middle West the country is divided, in accordance 
with the law of Congress, into sections, each containing a 
square mile of land. The main roads are constructed along 
the boundary lines of these sections, and other roads on the 
quarter-section lines. In this way it is easy to keep track 
of one’s whereabouts, though there are few short cuts be¬ 
tween different parts of the section. 

When a little village grows up in a country district, it is 
well to use foresight, and provide for future growth. By 


156 


Planning the Community 


building the first houses, which will doubtless be on the 
main road, directly across from each other, and a sufficient 
distance back from the road, with enough room between 
them, foundations are being laid for an attractive commun¬ 
ity. The school, church, and general store are usually built 
at a cross-road. This may some time become a real civic 
center, as we shall see later. Further growth in the busi¬ 
ness line will probably begin here, and the buildings or 
institutions in which everybody is interested will be con¬ 
venient to all. 



A WIDE THOROUGHFARE. 

If larger places than this had been planned in the beginning they 
would not be troubled as much with congested streets as tney now 
are. 

78. Difficulties to Overcome. — Of course, in many 
places, it is almost impossible for anybody just to sit down 
in his office, decide upon an ideal plan, and construct the 
streets of his town according to it. There are many difficul¬ 
ties to be overcome in connection with community plan¬ 
ning. The topography of the land must be considered, and 
the system of laying the streets adapted to it. Then there 
are many obstacles in the way of laying out a city. Some 
of these can be overcome if the people are willing to use 




Difficulties to Overcome 


157 



money and work. But it costs much more to construct 
a new boulevard when houses have to be torn down to make 
room for it, than it would have cost if the town had been 
planned better in the first place. 

In some places, the soil below the surface is not sub¬ 
stantial, and a good, firm foundation is necessary for large 
buildings. Often this will be the case along the coast where 


Courtesy Portland Cement Corporation 

A CONCRETE HIGHWAY IN THE COUNTRY. 

This kind of material for country highways is constantly coming 
more into use. Here is shown a milk truck bringing milk to a dairy 
in King County, Washington. 

the soil is sandy. In some places, where the map would 
seem to suggest a good harbor, a town can not be built on 
this account. 

Then there is the matter of transportation. This is vital 
to an industrial or an agricultural community, because its 
products can not all be used by its own people, and must 
be shipped somewhere. A farming community needs good 






158 


Planning the Community 


highways and railroads in order to have the perishable 
products shipped quickly, and an industrial community 
ought to have water transportation also. The town or 
city must also have a water supply which will be adequate 
after the community grows, and some means of disposing 
of the wastes. Each community has its own troubles, 
and what is one community's good luck may be another's 
misfortune. 

What particular difficulties in planning would Chicago have to 
contend with? New York? San Francisco? your own town? any 
other places with which you are familiar ? 



Copyright, Underwood. & Underwood 
SAN FRANCISCO AUDITORIUM. 


This building will seat over 10,000 people. It forms a part of 
the new civic center planned by San Francisco after the disaster of 
1906. 


79. Civic Centers. — City planners of today usually 
try to provide for what is called a civic center. This is a 
group of public buildings such as a library, museum, city 
hall, post office, court house, and other institutions used 
by many people. This should be at a place that is acces- 







Constructing Streets and Highways 159 

sible to all. If in a large community, it should be so situ¬ 
ated that it could be reached by street car from all sections 
of the city. It is also desirable to have such places as the 
court house where they are within reach of business men 
and lawyers. 

Of course, in a very large city, it may be best to have 
several of these centers, so that they are convenient to the 
various sections. These civic centers are an excellent place 
to establish parks and playgrounds, for here they will do 
the greatest service. 

Does your community have a civic center? Could it? Describe 
any such arrangement in towns that you know. 



WOOD BLOCK PAVEMENT. 


80. Constructing Streets and Highways. — Streets 
should be paved according to the use to which they are go¬ 
ing to be put. The paving of streets has a great deal to do 
with the beauty of a community, but the kind of paving 
must depend mainly upon use. For instance, a street 
that is to be used only for automobiles and such vehicles, 
and one that is comparatively level, can be paved with 
asphalt, but a street over which there is to be very heavy 





160 Planning the Community 

hauling, especially by teams, should have stone or block 
paving. This is especially true if the street is hilly, and icy 
and slippery in winter, because the stones are needed to 
permit horses to get a foothold. Wood block has come to 
be used a great deal, especially in business sections where 
there are office buildings, because a street paved with 
these blocks is not nearly so noisy as other kinds. Concrete 
is also very commonly used. 



A STREET WITH ASPHALT PAVEMENT. 


In the construction of an asphalt street, there is a six- 
inch foundation of concrete, a one-inch “binder” of sand, 
and two inches of asphalt on this. A heavy roller makes 
this paving smooth and firm. This kind of street is smooth, 
attractive, and easy to keep clean. 

People in a community are always proud of well paved, 
well kept streets, and are more careful not to do anything 
to diminish their attractiveness than if the streets are 
rough and narrow. Main streets should be laid out at 
least 100 feet wide, especially in busy districts, to allow for 
two street car tracks, and room for two lines of vehicles 
at each side. Much congestion is due to the fact that very 
many streets are too narrow. 




Constructing Streets and Highways 161 

The cost of street construction is sometimes divided be¬ 
tween the people who own property on the street and the 
city, and sometimes it is borne entirely by the city. Many 
people are willing to stand part, or even all, of the expense 
in order to have the street paved, because it is such a great 
improvement. All repairs are usually provided for by the 
city or other local government. 

The country highway is still most likely to be a plain dirt 



BRICK PAVEMENT ON A CITY STREET. 

It seemed better to use brick than asphalt on this grade. See also 
the picture on page 163. 


road. Sometimes this will pack down hard enough in the 
summer to make a very respectable surface for travel, but 
often it is sandy in spots, and muddy, sticky, or slippery 
in wet weather. Heavy trucks and wagons will cut it up 
badly, but by the use of the “stone drag” or “split-log drag” 
it can be smoothed off rather easily after a rain. 

Many states have undertaken to construct and keep in 
order the most traveled highways outside of the cities and 





162 Planning the Community 

towns. Some of them have borrowed sums of money reach¬ 
ing well up into the millions for this purpose. Such roads 
are usually made of concrete, macadamized, or surfaced 
with a preparation oi tar. The national government is now 
giving the states some money to help in constructing high¬ 
ways. 

In small cities and villages we find all kinds of street 
surfaces. Brick is common in many of them as well as the 



Courtesy Forest Service 

ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN THE MOUNTAINS OF COLORADO. 


Excellent highways have been built in some of our western moun¬ 
tains. On one side of the Arkansas River is the Denver and Rio 
Grande Railroad. 

other kinds we have mentioned. It depends entirely upon 
the public spirit of the community whether it keeps its 
streets in good repair. Nothing will advertise a community 
much more effectively than the condition of its streets. 

Make a list of the kinds of street construction that can be found 
in your part of the state. Try to find from a street commissioner or 
other public officer how much the different kinds of paving cost. What 
kind is most suitable for your neighborhood? 

Observe several roads in your neighborhood with reference to the 




Constructing Streets and Highways 163 

following points: Ditch, as to depth, width, openness, drainage; road 
bed, as to width, curvature, top surface, holes and ruts; grade; extent 
of use. 

On a map of your neighborhood indicate which roads are in good 
condition and which are not. If any of them are in bad condition, 
try to find the reason and determine whether they can be repaired. 


So important is this work of roadbuilding and repairing 
that usually a special department looks after the work. 
The state has a Department of Highways, or Highway 



AN ATTRACTIVE STREET IN A SUBURBAN VILLAGE. 

Brick is often used for pavement on residential streets in the smaller 
cities and towns. 


Commissioner, or both, under some such titles. The 
county imposes such duties on the County Commissioners, 
County Engineer, County Surveyor, and similar officers. 
Every town or township has Road Commissioners, Super¬ 
visors, or similar officials. In larger communities there will 
be a full-fledged Department or Bureau to look after the 
work. Sometimes it is a branch of the Department of 
Public Works. 

There was a time when everybody was supposed to look 
after the road in his own neighborhood, and when men were 







164 Planning the Community 

allowed to “work out” their taxes by putting in time picking 
stones out of the road or making other improvements. You 
can imagine what kind of roads were secured by that 
method. No up-to-date community uses it any longer, 
but the responsibility is put upon people who have had at 

least a little experience 
in doing this kind of 
thing. 

How does your community 
do it? 

81. Street Lighting.— 

We have already spoken 
of the way streets are 
kept clean, of the “white 
wings” and sprinkling 
wagons. Besides being 
an important factor in 
health, keeping the 
streets clean adds won¬ 
derfully to civic beauty. 

Street lighting has a 
big place in the attrac¬ 
tiveness of a city. In 
the first place, a well 
lighted street does not 
encourage crime and 
lawbreaking as a dark 
street does. Our bright 
thoroughfares tend to 
make us feel safe when 
we are out at night. 

The lighting may also add much to the beauty of a street 
or detract seriously from it. The old fashioned lamp post, 
or the arc light suspended from a telegraph pole is often an 
eyesore on a street. But we can have lamp posts that are 
ornamental as well as useful. Cluster lights have come into 



TROUBLE FOR THE STREET 
DEPARTMENT. 

Heavy snows such as occurred before 
this picture was taken in New York 
City furnish a serious problem for sev¬ 
eral days—both to those whose duty it 
is to clean the streets and those who 
wish to use the streets for travel. 






165 


Street Lighting 

favor. These are very pretty by night, and attractive to 
look at in daylight, and they give a very good light. Some 
of the boulevards and drives and parks in our cities have 
splendid lights that look very beautiful when the current 
is turned on. 

Compare the style of street lamps which you have seen or read about. 

Somebody has to look after the street lights. In the old 
days, the lamplighter went around with a ladder over his 



A BEAUTIFUL RESIDENCE STREET. 

This is Orange Grove Avenue in Pasadena. Notice the parkway 
on both sides, the decorative lamp posts, and the palms, pepper trees, 
and other attractive features. 

shoulder and set the lights burning one by one. A large 
city now has a Bureau of Lighting as a branch of its Depart¬ 
ment of Public Works, and may operate an electric light 
plant of its own. More likely, however, the community 
will make a contract with some private company and pay 
for the current which it uses, in the same way that we do 
for the electric light in our houses, if we use it. 






166 Planning the Community 

82. “The City Beautiful.” — If care is taken soon 
enough, a city can be made beautiful as easily as it can grow 
up ugly. This has come to be an important matter in city 
growth. Instead of thinking only of the money they can 
make, people are beginning to take pride in making their 
city attractive. They want visitors to have a good impres¬ 
sion of the city when they see it. There is no sense in 
putting up extravagant public buildings and monuments, 


A BEAUTIFUL WATER FRONT. 

Harrisburg, Pa., has taken good advantage of its opportunities in 
laying out this park along the Susquehanna River. 

just so that we can brag about them, but we can at least 
make attractive what we do have. 

In this connection, there is nothing that makes a worse 
impression on people than the appearance of the railroad 
station. So many cities have dirty, dingy stations, where 
no pains have been taken to make them attractive. No 
matter how beautiful the residential section of a city 
may be, there are many people who will form a bad opinion 
of it if the station is unattractive- 






167 


Trees and Parkways 

Cities situated on a body of water have another opportun¬ 
ity for beauty. Many of our water fronts are used entirely 
for industry, and are completely spoiled for the use of the 
public. In European countries, the banks of rivers and 
lakes are beautified and made into recreation spots for the 
people, and the industries are required to keep within a 
certain district. It is right that the people of a community 
should be able to enjoy the water fronts instead of having 
them monopolized by the industries as they are in so many 
of our American cities. 

We have spoken of the important part that attractive 
streets, lights, and buildings play in city beauty. Besides 
these the City Beautiful has trees and parks, well-kept 
homes and buildings. It provides in every way for the 
comfort and happiness of its people, as well as of the promo¬ 
tion of its own business interests. It is unfortunate that 
more of our cities can not be called the City Beautiful. 

Is your community or your part of it in that class? If not, why 
not? How much can it be improved and in what way? 

Can we improve upon nature in making a city beautiful? What 
features of natural beauty in your neighborhood ought to be pre¬ 
served? 

83. Trees and Parkways. —There is perhaps nothing 
that makes a street look more beautiful than shade trees. 
Many cities plant trees along the streets, and in some places 
they are cared for by the municipality. Besides making 
the city attractive, they add wonderfully to the people’s 
comfort in sheltering them from the hot sun in summer. 
Many communities find out what kinds of trees thrive best 
in a certain climate, and are most beautiful and useful, 
and they provide for the planting of such trees. The 
wonderful palms and eucalyptus and pepper trees of Los 
Angeles could not last long in the chilly winters of the North. 
But the noble elms and maples on the campus at Brown or 
Yale or many another college, or which line the streets of 
many a historic New England town, have a beauty all 


168 


Planning the Community 


their own. The roads, too, are often very attractive because 
of the trees that line them and sometimes arch over them. 

It is now becoming common for builders to save as many 
trees as possible, when erecting a new house, instead of 
cutting them down wholesale as was formerly the custom. 
It is much better to do this than to plant rows of poplars, 
which grow fast, but whose roots soon become a ruinous 
nuisance to sewers and sidewalks. People are beginning 
to realize how really important and valuable our trees are. 

Another way of adding to the beauty of a city is by pro- 



THE COMMON AT WEST BROOKFIELD, MASS. 

A number of New England towns were laid out around a common. 
Today such a little park is one of their most attractive features. 


viding for parkways, or grassy places, with perhaps trees 
and flowers, on the sides or in plots or circles in the center. 
Driving on these streets so adorned may be reserved for au¬ 
tomobiles and other pleasure vehicles. Some features of 
this kind add much to the appearance of a civic center. 

What kinds of trees does your community have? Why? Make a 
plot or plan of an ideal residential street. 

84. Unsightly Places. — It is natural for all of us to 
put our best foot forward. To visitors within our gates, 
we are apt to show the beauty spots of our city, and care- 







Unsightly Places 


169 


fully avoid and conceal the parts that are unsightly. Never¬ 
theless, these places usually exist. 

There are dark, dirty, unpaved or poorly paved alleys 
where all sorts of things are thrown, and where disease and 
vice breed with marvelous rapidity. There are dumps 
where rubbish, garbage, tin cans, and other “junk” are 
cast. These places are not necessary, and certainly not 
desirable. Their existence is due to carelessness, or ignor¬ 
ance, or gross defiance on the part of citizens, or willful 



ON THE CITY DUMP. 

A crude arrangement for baling the waste paper is shown here. 


neglect of duty on the part of officers. Public sentiment 
is the only thing that will help to eliminate these places, and 
it belongs to us to stimulate this sentiment in our com¬ 
munity. 

Why does a community tolerate a dump? Does yours have one? 

For some people, nothing detracts from city attractive- 
ness as much as the big, awkward, glaring billboards. They 




170 


Planning the Community 


appear everywhere, in business sections and on residential 
streets. They confront us as we come out of our homes, 
churches, libraries, public buildings, and business houses, 
throwing in our faces “Bull Durham” or somebody’s 
cigarettes, or some kind of gasoline or tires, which we have 
heard of many a time before. Along all our railroads, and 
at the turns in country highways or by the side of the road, 
we are faced by the same kind of thing. Business concerns 
seem to feel that by advertising on these large, gaudy 



BILLBOARDS ON A CITY STREET CORNER. 

Do you think they improve the neighborhood? Notice the safety 
platform for people waiting for street cars. 


boards, they will surely attract people s attention and 
increase their patronage. 

It is a shame to mar otherwise attractive places with 
these eyesores, even though the signboard man declares that 
they actually improve the scenery. If people would simply 
refuse to patronize the firms that advertise their chewing- 
gum or breakfast food in this offensive way, good might be 
accomplished. Perhaps, too, if a heavy tax were laid on 
these boards they would not be profitable. People do not 
usually spend money for things which bring in no profit in 
some form. 





City Zones 


171 


Have you seen any advertising signs which really improved the 
appearance of the neighborhood? What and where were they? Do 
you buy things which you see advertised in this way? 

85. Buildings and Their Appearance. — The buildings 
of a city also make or mar the beauty of it. When our 
cities were small, the people did not use foresight in laying 
out the streets, and as a result, the main thoroughfares 
of some of our big cities are very narrow. The commercial 
interests all want to be in the business district, and the 
result is that this section is very crowded and property very 
expensive. And so, in order to get their business interests 
in the heart of the city, tall “skyscrapers” have been built. 
These high buildings on the narrow streets completely 
overshadow the street and the smaller buildings, and give 
an appearance of irregularity that does not add to the 
beauty of the city. They often make the streets look 
like narrow caverns. Indeed, people sometimes humor¬ 
ously refer to the “cave dwellers’’ of New York or 
Chicago. 

The appearance of some streets is spoiled because the 
buildings are at such varying distances from the streets. 
Overhanging signs on the buildings produce a similar effect. 
When buildings, both large and small, are built with re¬ 
gard to appearance as well as to utility, our streets are 
much more attractive. 

Do you think beauty was considered when your school was built? 
Are its rooms, halls, and grounds attractive? If not, can they be made 
so? Are they kept clean? 

Who gets the benefit when a house is painted? Does the principle 
of civic beauty apply to your own house? If so, how? Can you 
add to the beauty of your neighborhood? 

86. City Zones. — A plan first adopted in European 
cities, and now becoming popular in some large American 
cities, is to divide the city into sections or zones. One zone 
is given over for factories, one for business interests, one for 
residences, and the like. New York was the first great 


172 


Planning the Community 


city in this country to adopt such a plan, but many others 
have now done so or are considering the idea. 

In the factory zones, all factories must be erected. It is 
important to have this section of the city easily accessible to 
either water or railroad transportation, and to make enough 
allowance for growth. It is advisable to allow for several 
business zones that will be needed as the city grows, because 
it would be very inconvenient if everybody in a large city 
had to go into one business section for supplies. 

Zoning is important in keeping up the stability of pro- 



AFTER THE GARAGE WAS BUILT. 

Do you think the people living on this street welcomed the garage, 
or would they have been glad if zoning laws had prevented its con¬ 
struction? 

perty. To build a factory or a garage in an attractive 
residential section is disastrous to the value of the home 
property, and makes the neighborhood undesirable for 
residences. 

Does a small city or village need to be zoned? Does the location 
•of business centers in a city change? Why? What people might be 
opposed to zoning your town? 

87. Locating Railroads and Bridges. — Our big cities 
could not live very long without the railroads. They 





Locating Railroads and Bridges 173 

bring all our food supplies, and transport our commercial 
and industrial products to other places. Because railroads 
are so important, they have been permitted to do almost 
anything they chose, and have sometimes been a menace 
to life, property, and comfort. They were very dirty and 
dangerous. 

But much has been done to improve them. Freight 
going from one place to another goes around large cities 
instead of through them, and smoke consumers are now 
used on the engines. These are economical to the railroad 
and they help keep the community clean. On some roads, 
notably the New York, New Haven, & Hartford, electric 
engines are used extensively. Where there were formerly 
dangerous grade crossings, large sums of money have been 
spent to raise or lower the tracks to prevent loss of life. 

Street railways are important in a community to enable 
the people to get from one section to another. Plans must 
be made to construct these railways where they will be 
convenient, and at the same time will not interfere too 
much with business or other traffic. The street railways 
enable people to live at some distance from the city and go 
in to work every day. 

Because almost all the car lines must go through the 
business section of the city in order to get their passengers, 
certain streets are terribly congested, especially during the 
busy hours. To relieve this congestion, some cities—Bos¬ 
ton, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago—have estab¬ 
lished subway or elevated systems, or both. In Boston and 
Philadelphia some of the surface cars run underground 
through the business centers. 

What is the effect of an elevated road upon the street where it runs? 
Are there any objections to the subway? Why do not more cities have 
one or the other? 

Communities situated on rivers are confronted with the 
problem of bridges. Some cities, like Pittsburgh, have 



174 Planning the Community 

grown up on both sides of rivers. They must have bridges 
to get from one part of the city to the other, because the 
old-fashioned ferry would be very inadequate at the present 
time. New York has gone the other cities a little better by 
having tunnels constructed under the Hudson and East 
rivers to take care of much of the suburban travel. But 
not many cities can afford to do this. 


THE POINT, PITTSBURGH. 

A city situated like this finds many bridges necessary. At this point 
the Allegheny and the Monongahela unite to form the Ohio. 

Some of our bridges are very beautiful structures and are 
an addition to city beauty. Most of our bridges accom¬ 
modate both pedestrians and vehicles. There are also 
street car bridges and railroad bridges. The old-fashioned 
toll-bridge has nearly passed out and most bridges are now 
open and free to the public. Many old bridges have been 
destroyed and splendid new ones constructed in their places. 
If the rivers are navigable, the bridges must be built high 





Unnecessary Noise 


175 


enough so as not to interfere with navigation, and yet low 
enough so that they will not inconvenience traffic un¬ 
necessarily. 

Show on your local map the steam railway lines and principal street 
railways, subways, and elevated lines. Is a union station desirable for 
a large city? How many cities that you know have them? Are they 
possible in every city? What means do you have for carrying freight 
or passengers from docks to railroads or from one railroad to another? 
Can these facilities be improved? 



UNLOADING FREIGHT. 

This shows a somewhat worn block-stone street, as well as differ¬ 
ent forms of local transportation. It would not be particularly 
pleasant to live in this neighborhood. 

88. Unnecessary Noise. — Those of us who have lived 
in cities all our lives do not notice how terribly noisy they 
are, and how much their attractiveness is reduced thereby. 
But the city noises day by day wear on our nerves and tell 
upon our health. Rough block paving or cobble-stones 
cause trucks and wagons to jolt and jar heavily over them. 
They should not be used except where absolutely necessary. 







176 Planning the Community 

Automobile horns blow all through the night, and street 
cars run over uneven or broken tracks, trucks clatter along 
our streets, whistles shriek and bells ring, and our neighbor's 
victrola or player-piano grinds out its “jazz” without rest 
or ceasing. 

In Europe, ordinances have been passed prohibiting un¬ 
necessary noise. In Berlin these are especially strict. Loud 
talking is forbidden, windows and doors must be kept 
closed when music is being played, and anything that would 
disturb the people is forbidden. In America we lay so much 
stress on the rights of the individual that it is hard to get 
any laws passed to keep our cities more quiet and restful. 
We think we have a right to be noisy, wholly forgetting the 
other fellow's right to be quiet. True, we do see “Quiet 
Zones” established around hospitals, but there are many 
other ways in which this source of discomfort and loss of 
rest can be remedied. 

Is the neighborhood where you live as quiet as it could be? Some 
people assert that noise means life, and that a city’s noise is one of its 
notable vital qualities. What do you think? 

89. Smoke Regulation. — Smoke is a nuisance with 
which all manufacturing communities have to contend. 
It comes from burning fuel only partially. Bituminous coal 
makes a great deal of smoke, and places that use it to any 
great extent are very smoky. 

Whether or not smoke is always injurious to health, it 
makes the community very dirty. The soot and dirt 
settles on shops and office buildings, and on our homes 
inside and out. The cost of cleaning the outside of 
buildings and the windows is enormous. Many of our 
skyscrapers have to be cleaned regularly, and this requires 
hard work and the expenditure of a great deal of money. 
Housewives find it very difficult to keep their houses clean, 
and the smoke increases our expense for soap and our 
laundry bills. 


Who Is Responsible? 


177 


Fortunately there are ways of diminishing smoke. One 
way is to use only fuel which does not give off smoke, such 
as oil and hard coal, but this can not always be done. 
Another is to employ smoke consumers, and still another 
is to use certain furnaces that burn soft coal entirely, 
and yet give off very little smoke. Many cities compel 
manufacturers to use one of these methods, in order to 
prevent the city’s being continually under a cloud of smoke. 
Of these, the smoke consumer is the most practical, because 
oil is expensive to use, and in some places soft coal is more 
abundant than hard. But smoke consumers on factories 



BACK YARDS CAN LOOK ATTRACTIVE. 


and on engines use up a great deal of the smoke, and prove 
a source of economy to the manufacturer and the railroad. 

90. Who Is Responsible? — Public officials have, of 
course, a great deal to do with keeping the community 
attractive. They should enforce the laws and report any 
cases of disobedience. It is their duty to see that streets 
are kept clean, and noise prevented as far as possible, and 
that everything in their power is done to keep the com¬ 
munity attractive. Let us see who some of these officials 
are. 







178 


Planning the Community 


LOCAL 

Mayor 


STATE 


NATIONAL 


Department of Public 
Works 


Department of 
Highways 


Governor 


National officers can 
do very little di¬ 
rectly to promote 
this element of wel¬ 
fare. 


Bureau of Highways 

Bureau of Parks Park Commission 


(perhaps) 


City Planning 
Commission 


County Commissioner 
County Engineer or 

Surveyor 

Street Commissioner 
Supervisor 

Make over the table as may be necessary to fit your own community. 

But whether public officials do their duty or not depends 
upon public sentiment. If the people insist upon it, officials 
will do all they can to keep the community looking its best. 
If public sentiment is lax in this matter, the officials are 
likely to be lax too. They will not see the rubbish in the 
alleys or the dirt on the wind-swept streets or smell the 
fragrance of the public dump if they know the people do not 
want them to do so. 

The individual can do much himself to make a com¬ 
munity attractive. A person who does not respect an¬ 
other’s property is not a very good citizen. Every individ¬ 
ual can do his part in keeping public buildings, libraries, 
streets, parks, and playgrounds in order, and he can respect 
other people’s rights. Never mind if you think you could 
make money by opening an auto accessory store in that 
fine residence district. ‘ ‘Have a heart’ ’ and don’t spoil their 
neighborhood forever by breaking up their happiness and 
beauty, even if your thoughtless government permits you 
to do so. 




179 



If every individual takes a personal pride in the way his 
own property looks, the appearance of the whole community 
will be attractive. And who threw that paper or apple 
core into the street? Was it you? Somebody did. So 
the white wing had it to pick up and your father perhaps 

had to use some of his 
money to pay the white 
wing’s salary. We 
should not need to spend 
so much if we were not 
so careless. Probably 
you have seen a park 
after a crowd of picnic¬ 
kers or even a single 
family had been out 
there for lunch. You 
would think they had 
tried to see how many 
greasy papers and 
“crumby” boxes they 
could bring out with 
them and leave around. 
We can not keep our 
self-respect and let the 
rubbish lie there, so we 
must hire somebody to 
go and pick it up. 

And then those people 
who must write their 
autographs or carve 
their initials in some public place! “Fools’ names and 
fools’ faces—” you know the rest. Let us not do 
such things. It is our community. Let us keep it at¬ 
tractive for ourselves and for other people to see and 
enjoy. 


A LESSON IN CLEANLINESS. 

This inspector from the city fire de¬ 
partment is trying to tell the children 
about the dangers from fire in leaving 
things around and is urging them to 
keep even the back alleys as clean as 
possible. 


Who Is Responsible? 




180 


Planning the Community 

QUESTIONS 

Give examples of American cities that were planned and that were 
not planned. What considerations ought to govern community- 
planning? Is there any difference between planning a small com¬ 
munity and a large one? What difficulties may have to be overcome 
in planning some communities? What is a civic center? 

What will you think of in trying to decide on a particular kind of pav¬ 
ing for a highway? Mention the kinds of paving in most common 
use. Who pays the cost of constructing highways? How wide should 
streets be? What officers are responsible for highway construction? 

In what way are lighted streets a benefit to the community? By 
what agencies is the light furnished? 

What special locations in a community are noted for beauty or 
ugliness? Mention the most common kinds of street trees. In what 
localities does each grow best? How do bill boards affect civic beauty? 
How do the buildings on city streets affect the beauty of the com¬ 
munity? 

What is meant by zoning cities? Of what good is it? What con¬ 
siderations should govern the locations of railroads in a community? 
How do street railways influence the life of the city? Of what im¬ 
portance are bridges? 

What is the effect of noise on city life? Can it be abolished? What 
is the effect of smoke on a city? How may this be corrected? What 
public officers are responsible for the appearance of a community? 
To what extent may the individual settle this matter? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

Street Names. 

The City of Washington. 

Resolved, that the government of . . . should have control of 

all advertising within its limits. 

The Planning of Our Community. 

The Growth of Our Community. 

Getting Rid of Eyesores. 

Railroads and Community Attractiveness. 

Ideal School Grounds. 

Attractive Dwellings. 

Monuments and Statues. 

Beautiful Public Buildings. 

City Planning in San Francisco. 

Types of Street Lamps. 

The Waterfront of Harrisburg. 


Themes and Exercises 


181 


Trees for North and for South. 

Resolved, that no community should maintain a public dump. 
Noises that We Can Avoid. 

Keeping the Community Clean. 

Resolved, that bill boards should be abolished. 

The Back Yards of Our Community. 

Vacant Lots of Our Community. 

My Ideal Park. 

Sky Scrapers. 

A Zoning Plan For Our Community 0 


CHAPTER VII 


TRADE, TRAVEL, AND NEWS 


Many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased. 

—Daniel 12: 4 . 


91. Conveniences Our Forefathers Did Not Know. — 

We are so accustomed to reading yesterday’s news from all 
over the world in our morning papers, that we can scarcely 
realize that it used to take weeks and even months before 
the people of one country heard what had happened in 
another. Our mails travel with such great rapidity that we 
receive letters only a few hours after they are written—a 
hundred years ago, it often took two or three weeks for 
mail to travel from one town to the next place of importance. 
The journey between Philadelphia and New York, which 
we now make in two hours, was a two days’ trip by stage. 
The telephone, the telegraph, the wireless, and the airplane, 
were unheard of and unthought of. It is not strange that 
there was a lack of community spirit and of feeling of mutua* 
interest—it is remarkable that our people were able to hold 
together at all. 

As far as possible, all transportation was done by water. 
When they had to go, people travelled by stage-coach or 
horseback between cities. The roads were terribly rough, 
and the coaches uncomfortable, and the inns where the 
people spent the nights were often very crowded and 
undesirable. The coaches were also used to carry the 
mails. People did not travel for pleasure in those days. 
They left home and comfort only when it was necessary. 

92. What Modern Facilities Have Done For Us. — 


182 




What Modern Facilities Have Done for Us 183 


People nowadays lay great stress on convenience. They 
want convenience in their homes, in their business, and in 
their pleasure. Modem facilities have made convenience 
possible. We can travel from one place to another in 
cushioned coaches or Pullmans, or in sleepers if the journey 
is long. Food is served in the trains, the cars are warm 
and comfortable. We are able, by means of the telephone, 
to sit in our own homes or business offices and talk to our 
friends. The wireless enables us to flash messages across 



ONE MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION. 

This source of power was much more common a hundred years ago 
than today. Oxen were more often seen drawing a heavy rumbling 
cart. They are slow but this man can depend upon his team. 

the ocean. We can easily hear from our friends or business 
acquaintances by letter, because of the safe, speedy mail 
service. Automobiles give pleasure to thousands of people 
or carry tons of freight on one load. 

Rapid, efficient communication makes for unity among 
our people and among the nations of the world. Our great 
country could not be the union that it is if communities, 
and even families, were isolated as they used to be. Our 





184 


Trade, Travel, and News 


newspapers keep us informed of most that is going on in the 
country. People can easily travel from one section to 
another, and see the other parts of the country and the 
people who live there. Our government could not be the 
great, centralized, efficient force that it is, if we did not 
have our modern facilities for communication, and we 
could not readily think or work together, or act as a unit. 

The whole world, too, is in some ways more of a unit 



Courtesy Cunard Steamship Co. 

LUXURIOUS TRAVEL. 

Few of the tourists who cross the Atlantic have homes furnished as 
elegantly as this parlor of the Aquitania. 

than our own country was a century ago. The ocean cable 
and the wireless tell us in a twinkling the things that are 
happening elsewhere. Men, carrying their ideas with 
them, move from one country to another in a few weeks. 
Commerce makes every nation have a material interest 
in every other nation. War in eastern Europe menaces 
the whole world. 0, that some Americans would realize this 




What Modern Facilities Have Done for Us 185 

more keenly than they do! We used to be taught that 
God had placed us here by ourselves in a kind of “fortunate 
isle/’ where we could do as we pleased and look down upon 
less favored humanity. But after all, we are just human 
beings like other nations, and if we were isolated, we are so 
no longer. 

A century ago, the great industries that exist today were 
unthought of, and at that time would have been impossible. 
The industries and businesses that used to furnish people 
with what they needed were small, because they supplied 
only small communities. With the growth of transporta¬ 
tion and the increase of the market, have grown up the 
giant industries with which we are familiar. Our railroads 
and steamships bring us raw material from every land under 
the sun, and carry our industrial products all over the world. 

Do not think that these modem facilities are invaluable 
to the manufacturer or merchant alone. They mean as 
much to the farmer. In former times it was not uncommon 
for people in cities to suffer from famines while grain and 
fruit rotted on the ground in the country. Now our rail¬ 
roads make it possible for many country people to ship 
their products into the city every day, and for the people 
in the city to receive these products very soon after they are 
picked, pulled, or gathered. There are refrigerator cars that 
keep foodstuffs fresh when carrying them a long distance. 
Milk trains bring milk fresh from the country every day. 

The farmers also make use of other conveniences. In 
some farming communities, there is an automobile for 
every four or five people. Many of the farmers who live 
near enough to the cities take in their garden products two 
or three times a week in trucks. Rural mail carriers often 
do errands for farmers in town, and deliver all kinds of 
goods from town to the farms. Most farming districts 
also use telephones extensively, and the farmers are no 
longer isolated and alone as they used to be. 

Our modern cities, particularly, throb with activity and 


186 


Trade, Travel, and News 


life. Trains roll in and out of the great stations. The 
streets are crowded with street cars, automobiles, and 
vehicles of all kinds. The telephone exchanges are busy 
day and night, and the great printing presses turn out 
thousands of newspapers morning and evening. 

These modern facilities have had a wonderful effect on 
city life. It used to be necessary for workmen to live near 
their work. This resulted in the overcrowding of certain 
sections of the city, and poor living conditions resulted. 



THE GRAND CENTRAL RAILWAY STATION, NEW YORK. 

Almost 600 trains enter and leave this station every day. Such 
buildings as this add to a city’s attractiveness instead of disfigur¬ 
ing it. 

But with the invention of the street car, the workman was 
able to move farther away from the business center because 
the cars enabled him to get to his work quickly. Thus the 
people began to live in residential sections where conditions 
were much more comfortable and healthful. Now the 
elevated railways and the subway and the steam railroad 
all help to make possible the growth of the pretty suburban 
districts which surround almost every large city. 







187 


The First Real Highways 

Are there any inconveniences or other objections to living in the 
suburbs? 

We are so accustomed to all these modem facilities that 
we do not half appreciate their value. But if we were to 
try to do without them for a time we should realize what an 
important part they play in our lives. 

What inconvenience would be caused if our telephones were to be 
taken away? What would happen to large cities if there were no 
railroads or street cars? 

93. The First Real Highways. — The roads in the 
United States were at first nothing but trails for a horse or 
wagon. These trails were rough at best, and in bad weather 
were almost impassable. The old stage-coaches, bumping 
over these uneven roads, must have been a very uncomfor¬ 
table means of travel indeed. Of course the first real roads 
were constructed between or out from the larger towns. The 
Lancaster pike from Philadelphia was opened in 1792. 
Stages traveled between New York and Philadelphia, and 
between others of the coast towns. The care of the roads 
was at first in the hands of each town. 

In 1806, Congress passed a bill authorizing the building 
of the Cumberland Road, which began at Cumberland, 
Maryland, and was finally completed into Illinois. The 
states later obtained control of it, and then the counties. 
Presidents Madison and Monroe doubted whether the 
Constitution gave Congress the power of appropriating 
money for the building and improvement of roads; so they 
vetoed bills of that kind. Most of the responsibility for 
main highways rested therefore on the states. Pennsyl¬ 
vania constructed many “turnpikes” and the roads in the 
more populous sections of the country became fairly good. 

Over these highways and over paths hardly passable 
moved thousands of Conestoga wagons or “prairie schoon¬ 
ers,” taking the goods of pioneer settlers moving to the 
West. “Corduroy” roads of logs, plank roads, and a few 
macadam roads were constructed by private companies 


188 


Trade, Travel, and News 


to make money. The traveler on these had to stop at a toll 
gate every little while and pay a few cents for the privilege 
of riding on them. 

94. Sailboats and Steamboats. — Since travel by land 
was so difficult and unpleasant, water transportation 
played a very important part in the history of colonization. 
Our sea-coasts had many good harbors and the great rivers 
were highways into the interior. Beyond the mountains. 


! 



Courtesy Cunard Steamship Co, 

THE AQUITANIA. 


One of the great transatlantic liners of this company. The Cun¬ 
ard line was the first to establish regular steamship service across 
the Atlantic. 

the settlers found the vast Mississippi system. Without 
this river, the settling of the West would have been very 
greatly retarded. 

Of course in the early days sails and oars were the only 
motive power. The people never imagined any other 
suitable agencies for propelling large ships. In some of 
the less navigable streams, canoes were used to get into the 
















Canals 


189 


interior, and there were flatboats and barges on the rivers, 
but the sailboat prevailed as the most common means of 
water transportation. 

In 1807, Robert Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont, made 
its first successful trip up the Hudson. Four years later 
another steamboat started down the Ohio from Pittsburgh. 
The steamboat was at first a very crude affair, and up¬ 
stream it moved slowly; but still it moved, and this marked 
a turning point in navigation. Improvements and inven¬ 
tions have been made with such rapidity that it is difficult 



THE OLD AND THE NEW. 

At the right is the old Erie Canal, with its locks In the center is a 
lock of the new Barge Canal. 


to keep ships up to date. The big ocean-liners that now 
cross the Atlantic in five to six days are very different 
from that first steamboat with the side paddlewheel, that 
slowly made its way up the Hudson against the current. 
These ships are sometimes as much as 900 feet long, with a 
tonnage of 54,000 tons, and accommodations for 1500 
passengers, and enormous holds for freight. These ships 
are really small floating communities. 

95. Canals. — As early as 1785, a charter was granted to 
the James River Company to build a canal, and many small 
canals were constructed during the next fifty years. But 






190 


Trade, Travel, and News 


the demand for better means of communication was sup¬ 
plied on a large scale first by the Erie Canal. This con¬ 
nected the Great Lakes with the Hudson River, and made 
continuous water traffic possible from the Middle West 
to the Atlantic Ocean. The Erie Canal immediately be¬ 
came a great success. Its tolls brought much revenue, 
communities began to flourish along its banks, and the 
commerce of New York increased enormously. 

When the success of the Erie Canal became known, a 
sort of mania for canal-building came over the whole coun¬ 
try. Almost every state had some projects in view for the 
construction of canals. Not wishing to be outdone by their 
neighbors in commerce, states built many canals which 
were of no value, as well as many that rendered great 
service. The Ohio Canal, joining Lake Erie with the Ohio 
River, was of much importance. Pennsylvania operated a 
very successful canal as a part of the route from Philadel¬ 
phia to Pittsburgh. It required a unique railway portage 
over the mountains. Other states were about to build 
canals when the railroad appeared on the scene. 

96. The Railroads and Their Expansion. — The first 
railroad in the United States was the Baltimore and Ohio, 
opened for traffic in 1830. Horse power and sails were 
first used as motive power, but before long it was found that 
steam was best for this purpose. In Pennsylvania the rail¬ 
roads developed rapidly. They were used to carry coal 
from the coal regions in the central part of the state to 
Philadelphia, and in 1832 there were 200 miles of railroad 
in the state. 

The Charleston and Hamburg was opened in 1833. It 
was 137 miles in length, and the longest line under one 
management in the world. In 1840, there were 3,000 miles 
of railroad in the country, and in 1860 this had increased to 
30,000. Today there are 250,000 miles of railroad in the 
United States. 

The first locomotives used in this country were English, 


Improvements in the Railroad 


191 


for the Englishman George Stephenson was the inventor of 
the locomotive; but they were found to be too heavy and 
not suited to the American rails and roadbeds. American 
inventors began to experiment and soon found they could 
improve upon the imported locomotives. The first rails 
were wooden beams placed end to end, with an iron strap 
over the top to prevent wear. After 1840, iron rails came 
into use, and made possible the carrying of heavier loads at 
a higher rate of speed 
than before. Railroads 
at that time were built 
and operated by pri¬ 
vate companies, al¬ 
though the states as¬ 
sisted them by lending 
them money, buying 
stock, and giving them 
grants of land. 

97. Improvements 
in the Railroad. — It is 
hardly a century since 
the railroads came into 
use, but there is not 
much likeness between 
those first small, slow 
engines and cars, and 
the giant locomotives 

of today, which draw luxurious cars over a network of 
tracks. 

Anything done on so vast a scale as our railroad system 
is bound to bring certain disagreeable features with it. The 
railroads, although they rendered wonderful service to the 
people, were found to be very noisy, dirty, and dangerous. 
But the better railroad companies realized that it would be 
for their own good to alter these conditions. They began 
to try to harm the natural beauty as little as possible, to 



Courtesy Baltimore & Ohio R. R. 
THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVE BUILT IN 
AMERICA. 

This is a copy of an old picture of 
Peter Cooper’s “Tom Thumb,’’ which 
ran first in 1830. 










192 


Trade, Travel, and News 



make their stations more attractive, and to render travel 
comfortable and safe. 

The first roads were usually short lines, and people travel¬ 
ing short distances had to change cars many times. Be¬ 
ginning with the years following the Civil War, the com¬ 
bination of small roads into big systems was begun. We 
can go from New York to Chicago, and from Chicago to the 
Pacific Coast without moving out of our car. Congress 


Courtesy Chicago, Milwaukee, & St. Paul R. R. 
AN ELECTRIC ENGINE DRAWING A TRANSCONTINENTAL TRAIN 
This railroad uses electric power to draw its trains over several 
hundred miles of its lines in the western mountains. Perhaps no 
road runs finer trains than that shown in this picture. 

voted aid in several forms to the construction of a railroad 
from Omaha to the Pacific Coast, and in 1869 che last spike 
was driven near Ogden, Utah, with considerable ceremony. 
Since then even the railroad systems have combined into 
groups controlled by a few men, and are known as the Hill 
lines, the Harriman lines, the Gould lines, and the like. 
Some of the men whose names are so used have been real 
nation-builders as well as “railroad kings.” 








Street Railways and Interurban Lines 193 


On a map of the United States, locate the great railroad systems. 
Make a map of your section of the country showing the railroads 
which serve it. 


Many improvements have been made on the trains 
themselves. In addition to powerful, speedy, big locomo¬ 
tives, we have luxurious Pullmans, coaches, and sleepers. 
There are private cars, opulently furnished, owned by 
private individuals. The diners serve people with meals, 
while buffet cars supply 
them with light lunches. 

There are staterooms in 
the Pullmans. Many 
trains have observation 
cars at the end of the 
train with books, mag¬ 
azines, writing mate¬ 
rial, and the like. Some 
are even provided with 
small barber shops and 
manicure parlors. 

Every comfort and lux¬ 
ury a person could wish 

for is provided now by CouTtesy Pullman Co _ 

the railroads. long distance travel today. 



Do you think these luxu¬ 
rious services are of much 
benefit to people in general? 
Who pays for them? 


The Pullman cars make it possible for 
one to travel at night with reasonable 
comfort. In the daytime a sleeper looks 
like this. 


98 . Street Railways and Interurban Lines. — Large 
communities must have some means of transportation 
from one section to another. The railroads could not 
possibly perform this service because they could not reach 
all parts of the city. For this reason, as we have seen, 
street railways have developed. 

The first cars were very small, crude affairs drawn by 
horses. Candles furnished the light, and in orde 7 ’ to keep 




194 Trade, Travel, and News 

the people warm in winter, straw was piled up as high 
as their knees. These cars sometimes charged ten cents 
up hill and five cents down. Cable cars succeeded the horse 
cars. They were drawn by means of cables, moved by 
powerful engines. These were long used in a few cities, such 
as Kansas City and San Francisco, on steep hills. 

In 1886, the electric car began to be used. This has 
proved by far the most satisfactory, and electric railways 



THE SULLIVAN SQUARE TERMINAL, BOSTON. 

You see both subway and surface cars here. The handling of 
traffic in the rush hours of the morning and evening at such places 
is a serious problem. 


are now universal. In our large cities, there are large 
trolley cars, capable of accommodating many people, and 
running at short intervals throughout the day. There are 
many lines, making it possible to reach any section of the 
city from any other part, and enabling thousands of work¬ 
ing people to live in pleasant districts, and go to work every 
morning. 

When an electric road runs some distance between one 











Keeping Railroads as Our Servants 195 

populous community and another, we often call it an inter- 
urban line. Such lines are of great value to the country 
people as well as those who live in the large towns served 
by the roads. These lines carry both passengers and 
freight. They often take milk and other foodstuffs into 
the cities. People can live in the country and still be 
convenient to the city because the interurban car lines 
generally make fast time. 

The subway cars of a few large cities are big and heavy, 
and travel in trains of six or eight, at a high speed. These 
cars make few stops, and enable people to reach their destin¬ 
ations quickly. Elevated trains also make very good 
time, for, although they stop frequently, the stops are far 
enough apart to enable the trains to travel fast between 
stops. 

99 . Keeping Railroads as Our Servants. — Railroads, 
telephones, and the like, because they are used by so many 
people, and communities learn to depend upon them for 
certain services, are called public utilities. Control of such 
public utilities by the government is necessary, because 
the men who manage them hold the very life of hundreds 
of communities in their hands. Besides, these businesses 
tend to become monopolies. A monopoly means such a 
complete control of any enterprise or product by one per¬ 
son or group of persons that no one else can successfully 
engage in the same business unless the monopolist consents. 

When a group of men monopolize any public utility, the 
public must put up with any kind of service they choose 
to give, unless some restriction is laid upon them. One 
railroad frequently occupies the only suitable route between 
one community and other. Often, too, while one railroad 
or telephone company can make a good profit in one section, 
if two of them tried it in the same district, both would go 
into bankruptcy. 

Public utilities commonly have to obtain a franchise 
before they are allowed to do business. This is a grant of 


196 


Trade, Travel, and News 


power or privilege made by a government to an individual 
or a corporation. When public utilities, as the street rail¬ 
ways, were first being used, the people were so glad to have 
a company establish them that they were willing to give 
it any powers it desired. Franchises were often given for 
99 years, or even forever, and sometimes without any com¬ 
pensation whatever. A franchise is considered in law as a 
contract, and our national Constitution says that no state 
shall pass any law “impairing the obligation of a contract.” 
Now a contract can not be set aside unless it has been broken 
by one of the parties concerned. In some cases railroad 
companies really have the public in their power because 
of the easy franchises they have obtained years ago. 

Nowadays communities sometimes try to avoid such 
evils by providing in the franchise that a railroad or rail¬ 
way system can be bought and taken over by the govern¬ 
ment or municipality for a reasonable sum of money, and by 
granting the franchise for not more than twenty-five years. 
Some cities also ask for a part of the profits, or some other 
form of payment. 

One agency for controlling public utilities is the Inter¬ 
state Commerce Commission. This was established by 
act of Congress in 1887, to regulate and supervise the rail¬ 
roads running in more than one state. Its power has since 
been greatly extended. It deals now with telephone and 
telegraph companies, express companies, sleeping car 
companies, and oil pipe lines, as well as with railroads. It 
is a very important branch of the national government be¬ 
cause such an enormous amount of business is done by the 
companies which it supervises. All rates charged by them 
must be approved by this Commission before they go into 
effect. It requires reports of accidents to be made, receives 
complaints in regard to violation of law by the companies, 
and in every way looks out for the welfare of the public. 

The Interstate Commerce Commission can regulate only 
the commerce between states—it has no authority what- 


Problems of Public Utilities Today 197 

ever over any utility entirely within a state. But most 
states have commissions with the same kind of supervision 
over intrastate utilities—that is, over such business wholly 
within one state. These are usually called Public Service 
Commissions, or Public Utilities Commissions, and are of 
great value to the people of their states. 

Has anything occurred recently in your community or state that 
raised the question of franchise rights? What matters of general 
interest has your state Public Service Commission or the Interstate 
Commerce Commission been considering? 

100 . Problems of Public Utilities Today. — Some peo¬ 
ple believe that these great public utilities should be owned 
and operated by the government. In many European 
countries, most of them are managed by the government, 
including railroads, telephones, and telegraphs. One or 
two American cities own a street railway system, but this 
plan is much more common in Europe. 

On the question of government ownership, there is much 
to be said on both sides. There are several ways of manag¬ 
ing utilities. (1) One is private ownership with govern¬ 
ment supervision, which is what we have generally now. 
(2) During the Great War we had in this country govern¬ 
ment operation of railroads for some time, and the tele¬ 
phones and telegraphs for a shorter period, with their 
ownership remaining in private hands. This arrangement 
was made so that they could be used most readily in do¬ 
ing the business of the war, but it is perhaps a less desir¬ 
able relationship than any of the others. (3) Another plan is 
public ownership with private operation, such as in part is 
the case in the subways of New York City. (4) And still 
another is complete government ownership and operation. 

Those who believe in government ownership say, among 
other things: (1) It would do away with the expense of 
competition and keep the rates steady. Public utilities 
usually are better conducted as monopolies than otherwise, 
but it is dangerous to have such monopolies in private hands. 


198 Trade, Travel, and News 

(2) If die government owned these utilities, it would be 
free from the corrupting influence in politics of the wealth 
possessed by their owners. It could no longer be said, as it 
has been said sometimes, that railroads spent their money 
to elect public officers who would “be good” to them. (3) 
The rates could be reduced, if the government did not wish 
to run the roads at a profit; or, if it preferred to do so ; it 



Courtesy of Pittsburgh Railways Company 
OLD STYLE STREET CARS. 

Note the horse car and the cable car. These have long ago been dis¬ 
placed by the electric car. 

could make money out of their operation and use it to re¬ 
duce taxes. 

On the other hand, those who are not in favor of govern¬ 
ment ownership say: (1) The railroads now have competi¬ 
tion, and competition is the life of trade. (2) If the govern¬ 
ment were to take over the railroads and other public 
utilities, it would have to pay a large sum of money for 











Problems of Public Utilities Today 199 

them, and since the roads would not be run for profit, there 
would be a great public debt. (3) Politics would enter into 
the matter, and officials would be appointed without regard 
to their ability. 

This is a question that will have to come before the public 
some day for settlement. But it is not likely that govern¬ 
ment ownership and operation of railroads, at least, will be 
considered seriously in this country for some time. 

Railroads to-day are finding themselves in considerable 
difficulty in regard to finance. The war raised the cost 
of everything they have to buy, just as it did the cost of our 
food and clothes. At the same time it was not possible to 
give proper attention to keeping the roads in first-class con¬ 
dition when every effort was directed toward moving troops 
and supplies. At the close of the war, more repairs than 
usual therefore had to be made, in spite of the higher prices 
of materials. 

Naturally the first step the railroads want to take is to 
get more money by raising the rates for carrying passengers 
and freight. But the public does not like to have such rates 
increased. Immediately the Interstate Commerce Com¬ 
mission or State Public Service Commission has a problem 
on its hands. It must decide whether the railroads’ request 
is reasonable, and, whichever way it rules, it will displease 
somebody. The public, however, simply must sometimes 
be willing to pay higher fares if it is going to insist on having 
all the conveniences which the railroads could afford to give 
when prices were lower. But if railroad rates are very high, 
people will not travel or ship goods any more than they 
need to, and the road’s business will suffer. 

Street railways have often been completely “up against 
it.” They could not pay higher wages to their employees, 
and higher prices for cars, rails, and everything else, unless 
they could get more money through higher fares. But if 
they raised the fares too much, it became about as cheap 
and much more comfortable to ride in an automobile. The 


200 


Trade, Travel, and News 


so-called “jitney bus” took much of their business away. 
Other people would walk rather than pay a ten-cent fare. 
In a number of cases, the roads simply quit trying, sold their 
wires, track, and other equipment, and went out of business. 

In some communities they have been managed dis¬ 
honestly or unwisely, with bad results to their prosperity. 



A DOUBLE DECKER STREET CAR. 

The streets of this city are too narrow to accommodate properly all 
the traffic that has to use them. 


Oftentimes, though, the public has not understood the real 
difficulties of operation. Street railways in a hilly district, 
for example, cost more to operate than in a level district. 
A fare which is reasonable in one place may therefore be 
unfair in another. We ought to be open to the truth in this 
matter as in all others, and seek simply the square deal for 
our companies and for ourselves. 








The Passenger Car and the Motor Truck 201 

Are the street railways in your community municipally controlled, 
or managed by private owners? What are the terms of their fran¬ 
chises? Are your people satisfied with the way they are operated? 

101. The Passenger Car and the Motor Truck. —The 
automobile is one of the newest and most important agencies 
for transportation. The manufacture of automobiles has 
increased enormously in the last few years, and now most 



Courtesy Portland Cement Association 


CONSTRUCTING A CONCRETE ROAD. 

This road is near Fowler, Arizona. Most of the work of this kind 
of road construction is now done by machinery. 

people who can afford it, and some who can not, own one or 
more. Like the street cars, automobiles enable people to 
live a greater distance from their work. They are a very 
rapid means of communication between parts of a great 
city. Most cities have boulevards that are used exclusively 
by automobiles, and the parks and driveways are crowded 
with “machine’’-loads of pleasure seekers. 




202 


Trade, Travel, and News 


Besides passenger ears there are the big heavy trucks 
that have come to be so indispensable in the business world. 
Horses and wagons are very rapidly being displaced by 
auto-trucks for delivery purposes. They are much quicker 
and cleaner than the horses and wagons, and can carry 
more. Enormous trucks carry lumber, gravel, bricks, and 
stone for building construction. Trucks bring produce and 
milk from the country, and trucks deliver goods from 
grocery and department stores to our homes. In the Great 
War, the army trucks that traveled across the country in 
large numbers and those which were used by the “S.O.S.” 
and the Red Cross over in France rendered an invaluable 
service to our nation. 

The auto-truck, however, has made road-building more 
of a problem than ever. The automobilist wants fine, 
smooth roads which the public must be taxed to build and 
maintain. Then along come the trucks, often overloaded, 
and pound the costly roadbed to pieces, carving out deep 
and dangerous ruts. There are laws in many states for¬ 
bidding trucks to carry more than a certain number of tons 
of freight, but these laws are difficult to enforce. 

Can you suggest any remedy for this particular road problem? 

Are roads more or less important today than one hundred years 
ago? fifty years? ten years? 

Is the jitney bus a nuisance or a blessing? 

102. Travel in the Air. — At last men are flying. As 
long as we know about them, they have been able to move 
on land and water, and now they have partly mastered the 
air. Among the foremost of those who risked themselves 
to experiment in this field were the Wright brothers of Ohio. 
The names of the Frenchmen Ader and Farman also stand 
out prominently. 

During the war, airplanes and airships of all kinds were 
used extensively in dropping bombs, in scouting, and in 
actual combat above the earth. They have not, as yet, 
come into common use for travel and trade. But it is 


Opportunities for Water Traffic 203 

predicted ’that in the future there will be as many airplanes 
as there are automobiles today. At present, however, most 
people either cannot afford airplanes or are afraid of them. 

Already they are used for carrying mail between large 
cities. They travel very fast, and it does not take long for 
mail carried in this way to reach its destination. In 1919, 
a British “dirigible” made a flight across the Atlantic with- 


r 



Courtesy Air Service 

A DE HAVILAND AIRPLANE. 


out stopping, suggesting the time when freight and passen¬ 
gers may be regularly carried in that way, but it will doubt¬ 
less be a good many years before the airship will relieve 
railroads and steamships of much of their burden. 

If you have never ridden in a airplane, ask someone who has done 
so the sensations he felt. Will the element of great danger always be 
present in air travel? 

103. Opportunities for Water Traffic.—Although the 
railroad has simplified the matter of transportation in many 
ways, water transportation still holds a place of great im¬ 
portance, and could be of much greater service than it is. 











204 


Trade, Travel, and News 


For the benefit of navigation, many improvements are 
being made. Every year Congress appropriates large 
sums of money for the purpose of widening and deepening 
rivers and harbors. Sometimes, unfortunately, this money 
has been wasted on streams that are almost dry part of 
the year. The River and Harbor bill was often nicknamed 
the “pork barrel,” because so many Congressmen tried to 
get some money, or “pork,” to be used in their districts, 
whether it was needed or not. The national government 
has established a coast survey which sees that all channels 



VESSELS AT ANCHOR IN THE DELAWARE RIVER. 

A considerable variety of water craft appear in this picture. Some 
use sails and some use steam. 

and dangerous points are charted for the guidance of 
seamen. Lighthouses, buoys, and the like are also main¬ 
tained for the safety of ships at sea. 

Canals are still of importance, although not so necessary 
as they seemed when they were first constructed. The 
successful completion of the Panama Canal, which was 
built by the United States at a cost of about $400,000,000, 
shortens the voyage from New York to San Francisco by 
about 8,000 miles. It joins the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, 
and is one of the most wonderful engineering feats ever ac¬ 
complished- 







The Postal Service 


205 



Many believe that the construction of more canals within 
the country would be a great help to business. Much 
freight which is not perishable could be carried just as read¬ 
ily by water, even though it takes longer, and this would 
relieve some of the strain on the railroads. A series of 
canals that would serve as an inland water route parallel to 
the Atlantic Coast has been planned, and in part constructed. 
New York State 


has spent more than 
$50,000,000 recently 
developing its Barge 
Canal, but has not been 
very successful in get¬ 
ting people to use it. 
Another new water¬ 
way, much talked of 
but not yet dug, is the 
proposed canal from 
Pittsburgh to Lake 
Erie, which might carry 
a considerable part of 
the enormous amount 
of iron ore, coal, and 
manufactured iron, 
that goes in or out of 
Pittsburgh. 


THE POSTMAN COLLECTING LETTERS. 


Make a list of ten things 

which could readily be carried by water; of ten which could not. 

What interests or influences in a community might be opposed to 
canals? Why? 


104. The Postal Service. — One of the public servants 
whom we all know is the postman. He comes to our homes 
once, twice, or perhaps even more times a day and delivers 
letters, papers, periodicals, and the like, and he collects 
the mail from the boxes and takes it to the nearest post 
office. In the country districts, the rural carrier, who 






206 


Trade, Travel, and News 


comes around once a day, takes the place of the postman. 
If we live in a village, we probably have to go to the post 
office for our mail, and meet the postmaster himself or one 
of his clerks. 

The Postmaster General is at the head of the Post Office 
Department, and is a member of the President’s cabinet. 
He has several assistants, and the work of his department 
in done through many divisions and bureaus. It takes 
300,000 employees to handle the mail, and 20,000,000,000 



DISTRIBUTING THE MAILS IN A CITY POST OFFICE. 
These clerks are sorting parcel-post packages. 


pieces of mail pass through their hands every year. The 
nations of the world are united in the Universal Postal 
Union and have arrangements for the sending of all kinds 
of mail to all quarters of the globe. 

Stamps are cancelled and the mail sorted in the local post 
offices and started on its journey to various parts of the 
country. Speed and accuracy are important elements in 
the postal service. Motor trucks carry the mail between 




The Postal Service 


207 


the post offices and the stations. Pneumatic tubes and 
belts carry the mail bags from one part of the city post office 
to another. 

Swift trains take the mail to its destination. At stations 
where the train does not stop, the mail bag is hung out by 
the track, and a railway clerk catches the bag as the train 
passes. To conserve time further, the mail is sorted on the 
train. The clerks must be familiar with the location of 
thousands of post offices throughout the country. They are 
very speedy and accurate in their work. Some clerks have 
put letters in their respective pigeon-holes at a rate of one 
letter a second. 

The Post Office Department also carries on Postal Sav¬ 
ings Banks, where people may deposit money at the rate of 
2\ per cent interest, with Uncle Sam as their banker. 
Many people who do not trust other banks are willing to 
deposit their money with the United States government. 
During the war, and since, the post office has done a very 
important work by selling Thrift Stamps and War Savings 
Stamps, to help supply our government with money to aid 
in carrying on the war. On this money the government 
pays four and one fourth per cent, interest. 

In spite of the care taken with letters, there is a risk in 
sending money through the mails. So in order to insure 
the safe receipt of money, the post office issues money orders. 
These are a sort of check that may be obtained for a 
small fee, and which may safely be transported through 
the mails. A parcel-post service is also carried on, by 
which packages may be shipped through the mail. The 
country is divided into zones, and the amount charged for 
sending a package depends upon its weight and the distance 
it has to go. 

In order to prevent fraud and swindling through the 
mails, the post office maintains a corps of inspectors to dis¬ 
cover cheaters and see that they are punished. In this way 
the post office offers protection to the public. 


208 


Trade, Travel, and News 


The big business man sends letters by the score every day. 
The boy away from home can write to his mother and get 
messages from her. Friends separated by the width of a 
continent keep in touch with each other. Newspapers 
and magazines come to us at regular intervals from their 
publishers. Things to wear and even things to eat are 
brought to us through the post offices. It is a wonderful 



A COUNTRY HIGHWAY IN MID-WINTER. 

The rural street railway and the road commissioners both have 
work on their hands when a big snow-storm comes. 


example of what a government may do for its people. Only 
by some such experience as being out in the country when 
the snowdrifts are piled so that the carrier can not get 
through for days, can we be made to appreciate how much 
we depend upon the service which the post office renders 
to us. Then we realize a little of what this great element 
of welfare—communication and transportation—means in 
our modern life. 



The Telegraph and Telephone 209 

Find from your post office or from some reference book the rates 
charged on the different kinds of mail matter. Test your classmates, 
imagining that you are sending five letters or packages of various 
weights, and get them to tell you the cost of postage. 

Post offices are not all alike. If you have time to spare, study the 
regulations which determine how post offices are classified, and how 
the postmaster’s salary is fixed. 

105. The Telegraph and Telephone. — Some of us use 
the telephone many times as often as we use the mail. It 
has a place in every business house, and in thousands of 



IN THE CABLE ROOM OF A GREAT TELEGRAPH OFFICE. 


This enormous switchboard looks very complex but so carefully 
has it been planned that any wire connected with it can be located 
in a few seconds. 

homes in city, village, and country. The modem business 
man would become nervous and anxious if he had to send a 
letter about every business transaction, or even to wait for 
his office boy to go with a message and return. By means 
of the telephone he can talk to somebody in another part 
of the city or even on the other side of the continent, with 




210 


Trade, Travel, and News 


less trouble, perhaps, than to hunt up in the same office 
building. The use of the telephone has saved life and 
property by summoning the fire department or a doctor or 
an ambulance, and may have prevented panics and business 
disasters. 

This wonderful invention we owe chiefly to Alexander 
Graham Bell. Fifty years ago it was unknown. But 
today the Bell Telephone Company alone has 24,000,000 
miles of wire, and 12,000,000 telephones in use, and there 
are a number of other small companies. 

The telegraph is used very extensively when messages 
must travel quickly but when conversation is not necessary. 
The telegraph, too, is more expensive. Much business is 
transacted by means of the telegraph, and a number of 
business houses and newspapers have private wires by 
which they communicate with branch houses or cor¬ 
respondents in other places. The telegraph companies 
allow long messages to be sent by night letters, which 
cost less than the day rate, and are delivered the next 
morning. In this country most of the telegraph lines 
belong to either the Western Union or the Postal Telegraph 
system. In Europe, the telegraph and telephones are 
virtually a part of the government’s postal services in 
most countries, and our government took the systems 
over during the war. The name of Samuel F. B. Morse 
means about the same to us in connection with the tele¬ 
graph that Bell’s does with the telephone. 

What does the Weather Bureau owe to the telegraph? 

The name of Cyrus W. Field is linked with the first success¬ 
ful laying of an ocean cable. Now these undersea cables 
cross almost every large body of water. They have been 
of the greatest importance in binding the countries of the 
world together and uniting them into one great community. 

The wireless was perfected by Marconi, an Italian, in 
1896. Messages are now sent for a distance of 1,000 miles 


Collecting and Distributing the News 211 

at a rate of 100 words a minute. The wireless renders a 
wonderful service to ships at sea. It enables them to send 
messages to other ships and to land, and in case of an ac¬ 
cident they can call for help. It has saved so many lives 
that ships are now required to be provided with a wireless 
apparatus and operator. The wireless telephone was 
perfected in 1906 by Professor Fessenden. It enables peo¬ 
ple to talk long dis¬ 
tances without any 
wires. Now the radio 
set has its place in 
thousands of homes. 

Concerts and speeches 
are heard hundreds of 
miles away. Both uses 
of the wireless—tele¬ 
graph and telephone 

— were very valuable 
in army work. A man 
in an airplane, for ex¬ 
ample, could send a 
message to some one 
on the ground though 
he himself was thous¬ 
ands of feet in the air. 

106. Collecting and 
Distributing the News. 

— All these means of 
communication that we have discussed are used in collecting 
news from all over the world, and distributing it to us 
through the newspapers in our community. We may not 
realize what an agency the newspapers are in keeping us in 
touch with the vital matters that are going on. 

The newspapers employ reporters who are active in then- 
own communities, and some of them have special correspon¬ 
dents from all over the world. The reporters and photog- 


i 


a 


■ 



International 

WIRELESS STATION. 


This great station at Sayville, Long 
Island, has sent and received many thou¬ 
sands of messages across the Atlantic. 






212 


Trade, Travel, and News 


raphers are usually among the first of a crowd to arrive at 
a fire or an accident, and they seem to be always near when 
an arrest is made. They attend public meetings and take 
speeches down in shorthand. Every means possible is used 
to get this news to the people without a moments delay, 
so that the news that we see in print may be the latest that 
can be obtained. 

In order that all papers, the large and the small, may 



THE VILLAGE POST OFFICE, SUGAR HILL. NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

Country post offices can often combine a grocery or stationery 
business with the postal service. The salary of a country post¬ 
master would sometimes not keep a healthy man alive. 

obtain full, accurate news of all that goes on in the world, 
organizations such as the Associated Press and United 
Press have been formed. Instead of each separate paper's 
having special reporters, the news associations have cor¬ 
respondents in every community of importance. They send 
to the headquarters of their association reports of various 
events, and then these reports are wired to all the papers 
which have arranged to get this service. These organiza- 












Responsibility for Good Service 


213 


tions try to be entirely disinterested in political matters, 
and the articles obtained from them are as unbiased and 
accurate as one can hope to get. Here is a fine example 
of the way cooperation promotes progress. In no other 
way could we bring such thoroughness and efficiency to 
the work of collecting and distributing the news. 

Make a list of all the means by which news is circulated. Discuss 
the importance and trustworthiness of each. 

107. Responsibility for Good Service. — As usual let 
us list the public officials who have to do with this great 
element of welfare. Many of them have already been 
mentioned in connection with Community Planning. 


LOCAL STATE 

Mayor Governor 

Department of Public Department of High 
Works ways 

Bureau of Highways Public Service 
Commission 

County Commissioners 
County Engineer or 
Surveyor 

Street Commissioner 
or Supervisor 

Adapt this plan to your own state and locality. 

Upon these public officials rests great responsibility. 
Many of them have direct charge of constructing or opera¬ 
ting some of the means of communication and transporta¬ 
tion. Others have the particular duty of seeing that the 
managers of public utilities obey the laws, and, on the 
other hand, that all such companies receive a square deal. 
The officials should look out for the interests of the public 
and see that the people are not abused because of their 
absolute dependence upon the public utilities. Special 
responsibility in this connection rests on the Interstate 
Commerce Commission and the Public Service Commissions. 


NATIONAL 

President 

- Post Office Department 
Postmaster General 
Local postmaster 
and employees 
Interstate Commerce 
Commission 


214 


Trade, Travel, and News 


But we must not put the whole burden for good service 
on these officials. The managers and those in charge of 
public utilities should adhere strictly to the terms of their 
contracts and franchises. They should not exercise arbi¬ 
trary power, even though they may be in a position to do 
so, and they should serve the best interests of the com¬ 
munity. They generally have been given special privileges 
by it, and owe special service in return. They shape the 
policies of their business, and can make it popular or dis¬ 
liked, helpful or merely profitable. 

The employees, too, have a great deal to do with the kind 
of service rendered by the public utilities. For instance, 
street railway crews in one city were accused of playing 
chess at the end of a car line, while the people waiting for the 
cars fussed and railed at the railways company for the 
poor service. The employees can be courteous and patient 
and should know as much as they can learn about the busi¬ 
ness with which they are connected. They have a duty 
both to their employers and the public. 

Have employees on a railroad the right to quit work any time they 
please? 

Although the individual citizen can not usually make 
street cars go faster or more regularly, nor decide how much 
he will pay, still there is something he can do. Often he 
can cooperate with other citizens and arouse public opinion 
so as to bring about improvements. He can show his ap¬ 
proval of good service as well as his disapproval of bad 
service. 

There is another side to this business, too. Most of us 
are familiar with the condition of street cars in the busy 
hours. At both ends and by the doors, the people are 
packed in, while there may be plenty of room in the middle 
of the car, and in spite of the conductor’s “Move up front, 
please! ” the people stay just where they are, and make it 
almost impossible for any one to get on or off the car. 

Often it is necessary to have a little patience when using 


215 


The Movements of Our People 

the telephone, but this virtue is seldom seen. If the 
telephone operators roared at us as some of us do at them, 
we should be very indignant, and probably complain to the 
chief operator immediately. It is another matter in which 
we must cooperate. 

When is it a person’s duty to complain of poor service? How should 
he go about it? 

How can a citizen help to make the work of the post office easier 
and better? 



TRAVEL ON THE MISSISSIPPI YEARS AGO. 


The flat boats and the vessels using both sails and steam for motive 
power have virtually disappeared from use. The picture is copied 
from an old school geography. 

108. The Movements of Our People.—We have al¬ 
ready spoken of the immigration of the foreigner to our 
country, but there is also a great, continuous movement 
within the country. For this the development of our means 
of communication and transportation is largely responsible. 

The great westward movement in the nineteenth century 
is one of the biggest facts in our history. It would be 
hard to tell why so many people moved. Perhaps it was 
due to the “wanderlust” that we all possess to some ex- 


















216 


Trade, Travel, and News 


tent. We all know the difficulties that these early pio¬ 
neers had to overcome. Now we can travel comfortably 
and easily to any part of our country. If it were not for 
the railroad, the telephone and telegraph, the automobile, 
and the postal service, our western land would not be nearly 
so advanced and well populated as it is. 

There are many motives today which prompt migration— 
climate, better employment, business, pleasure, or a desire 
simply to move or travel. Migration makes people pro¬ 
gressive. If we stay in one place all the time, we may be¬ 
come narrow-minded, backward, and selfish. If we move 
around, we see people and places, and we hear other ideas 
and opinions. We are alive. People who travel all the time, 
however, who never stay in one place for long, miss a certain 
indefinable something in their lives. They do not grow to 
be a part of any community, to realize its interests, or serve 
its needs, or receive its benefits. 

The “mobility” of labor, that is, the unceasing change 
and movement of the working people, is an important 
feature in industry. It makes the wages higher, because, 
in order to keep his men, an employer must pay them high 
enough wages so that they will not be attracted to work in 
other cities, or with another employer. Some laborers travel 
“light,” and can move easily from one place to another. If 
one is not satisfied with his work or his employer, he can go 
to another place to work without much trouble, unless 
he has a large family. 

A serious problem that our country is facing today 
is that the farmer can not get help to do the farm work. 
The census of 1920 shows that more and more people are 
migrating from the country to the cities. There are more 
people to feed, and fewer to produce food. It is true, 
agricultural machinery has done wonders for those who 
farm on a large scale, because it does the work of many men 
in a part of the time. But there must be men to operate 
the machines. Yet very few are willing to work in the 


Incomers from Abroad 


217 


country because the wages are usually not so high as in the 
cities, and there are fewer means of entertainment. 

Have you ever moved? How often, and why? Do you think 
migration has any benefits that have not been mentioned? 

109. Incomers from Abroad. — The motives that 
prompt foreigners to come to this country are sometimes 
different from those which cause migration within the 
country, and sometimes very similar. Many foreigners 
come here for employment. They know that higher wages 
are paid here than in their native country, and they want 
to lay up wealth. Others have heard that America is a 
land of opportunity, of advancement, and of democracy, 
and so they come. Some foreigners have relatives who 
have come to this country, and send back such glowing 
accounts of wealth and equality that they immediately 
want to leave the home country and come here. They gaze 
almost with reverence at the torch of the Statue of Liberty 
when they come into the great harbor, but somehow, it does 
not always seem to shine so brightly after they have been 
here a while. America is not Heaven. 

The effects of immigration are not altogether desirable. 
Foreigners often live in overcrowded sections of the cities, 
where all sorts of disease and crime exist and spread. As we 
have already noticed, a great many of them never become 
Americanized in thought and customs, although they may 
become citizens in name. But the foreigners do manual 
labor which most Americans do not want to do, and in this 
way they have an important part in the country’s industry. 

Our immigration laws are more strict than they used to 
be. Foreigners are now required to be able to read in some 
language before they may come into this country. Every 
immigrant must pay a “head tax” of four dollars, and no 
one is admitted who seems to the officials “likely to become 
a public charge.” Anarchists and people with dangerous 
diseases are also excluded. 


218 


Trade, Travel, and News 


We must find some way to distribute the immigrants 
after they arrive, else they will go to those parts of our cities 
which are already overcrowded, and increase the burden 
on their community. People from other countries will 
probably keep on coming here, and we usually find some 
work for them to do. If we are tempted to think harshly of 
them or to look down upon them, it might be well for us to 



Copyright, Boston Photo News Co. 


THE COMING OF THE IMMIGRANTS. 

This is a scene on the steerage deck of a vessel that has just arrived 
from Europe. 

remember that unless our ancestors were Indians they were 
immigrants themselves at one time. 

As soon as the fighting of the Great War was over, and 
the people in European countries realized what a task was 
before them in the way of rebuilding their lands and homes, 
thousands of them undertook to come to the United States. 
But as business was becoming less active here, we did not 
seem to need so many newcomers. Some of our Congress¬ 
men became very much alarmed, and an act was passed 





Questions 219 

which forbade the admission in one year from any country 
of more than three per cent of the number of immigrants 
from that country who were here in 1910. The quota 
was reduced to two per cent on the basis of the 1890 
census by the Act of 1924. 

Let each member of the class trace his “family tree” back to his 
great-grandparents, and then tabulate the results by nationalities. 
Find out the percentage of ancestors belonging to the nations most 
largely represented. 

QUESTIONS 

What means of travel existed a century and a quarter ago? How 
do modern facilities for transportation benefit the world? How many 
kinds of industries could exist today without modern transportation? 
How does modern transportation affect city and country life? 

What were the earliest types of highways in the United States? 
How were they supported? What means of travel by water existed 
in George Washington’s days? What did Robert Fulton do for the 
world? How did canals influence the early history of this country? 

Describe the first railroads in the United States. Trace the 
development of railroad systems in the United States. What im¬ 
provements in railroad transportation have been made in recent 
years? Sketch the development of the street car system. What is an 
interurban line? Define public utilities, monopoly, and franchise. 
How does each of these terms apply to a railroad? What is the Inter¬ 
state Commerce Commission? How do states regulate railroads? 

What ways of managing public utilities have been tried? Give the 
principal arguments in favor of government ownership; against govern¬ 
ment ownership. What financial problems have vexed the railroads 
in late years? Why have street railways had financial difficulty? 

How are the automobile and the motor truck influencing transporta¬ 
tion? Discuss the accomplishments of air travel. Name varieties 
of waterways that exist. What was the “pork barrel”? What im¬ 
provements in water transportation are being considered? 

Outline the work of the post office department. By what means 
is the mail carried? What does the post office department do besides 
carry mail? 

Explain the significance of the names Bell, Morse, Marconi, and 
Field. Give facts that show the importance of the telephone and 
telegraph today. Of what special service is the wireless? the ocean 
cable? What is the Associated Press? How does it operate? 

To what extent are public officers responsible for the operation of 


£20 


Trade, Travel, and News 


public utilities? How are the employees responsible? Are the pub¬ 
lic to blame when they do not get good service? 

Define migration. Why do people move? What are the effects of 
the mobility of labor? How does migration affect farm life? Why 
do foreigners come to the United States? Mention the principal 
effects of their coming. State the principal features of our immigra¬ 
tion laws. 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

Great Railroad Systems of the United States. 

The Experiences of a Letter. 

The Troubles of the Railroad in Winter. 

Great Inventors Who Have Helped Communication. 

The Trials of Cyrus W. Field. 

How a Telephone Exchange is Managed. 

The Life of a Train Dispatcher. 

Resolved, that the United States government should own and 
operate the railroads. 

The Public Service Commission of Our State. 

The Interstate Commerce Commission and What It Has Done. 
Great Railroad Kings. 

The Making of a Newspaper. 

Rescues by Wireless. 

What Our Community Owes To the Railroad. 

Travel and Transportation in Washington’s Day. 

Travel and Transportation in Jackson’s Day. 

Travel and Transportation in Lincoln’s Day. 

Things We Ought to Know About Our Local Post Office, 
Classifications of Post Offices. 

Civil Service Examinations. 

The History of Our Local Street Railway System. 

Freighting By Motor Truck. 

A Modern Ocean Liner. 

National Highways. 

Flying in War Time. 

Future Travel in the Air. 

The Life of a Newspaper Reporter. 

Why Men Went West. 

Our Immigration Laws. 

Why Foreigners Come. 


CHAPTER VIII 


LAYING UP WEALTH 


Blessed is he who has found his work; let him ask no other blessedness . 

— Carlyle. 


110. What Does It Mean to Be Wealthy?—Wealth 
is mainly an economic problem—that is, it concerns directly 
the earning of a living or the conduct of business. Students 
in high school or college often spend a whole year discussing 
it under the name of economics, and even then make just a 
beginning of understanding it. But it has a place with the 
elements of welfare because it is an essential to the well¬ 
being of every community and to the progress of the 
country. We shall therefore take a little time to discuss 
some of the relations of wealth to the local community and 
to the nation. 

But what is wealth? It is not merely money, for if we 
could not buy clothes, food, and other things, all the money 
in the world would not do us any good. Money is valuable 
only as a means of exchange for other things. Wealth is 
the amount of material things—that is, the things that can 
be measured by money, in the possession of an individual 
or a community. To be “wealthy,’' therefore, is generally 
considered as meaning the possession of an abundance of 
the things which help to satisfy our desires. 

Unfortunately, brains, knowledge, character, and other 
qualities of the mind and heart, can not be classed under 
wealth. They are exceedingly desirable possessions, and 
help mightily toward real success. But because they can 

221 




Laying Up Wealth 


222 

not be measured by a standard of value, such as money, we 
have to omit them from this discussion. 

Are these wealth; base balls, books, strawberries, watch fobs, carbon 
paper, oratory? 

111. Why Do We Want Wealth?—Almost all of us 
have a desire for wealth to some extent, though not every¬ 
body craves great riches. But the motives back of this 



THE VILLAGE STORE. 

This store-keeper does not seem to be very busy, yet he makes a 
comfortable living. 


desire are by no means always the same. Our desire may 
be chiefly to possess the necessities of life—the things that 
every one must have in order to keep alive. Most of us, 
however, want some comforts and luxuries beyond mere 
necessities. We may have, in part, an altruistic motive, 
a desire to obtain wealth to use for helping others. Many 
people want wealth so that they may provide something as 
a sort of financial umbrella in case of a “ rainy day,” as we 
sometimes say. Other people want the social standing and 













Public Wealth and Private Wealth %23 


prestige which they think wealth can give them. A few, 
perhaps, strive for wealth just for the selfish pleasure of 
thinking that they have it, or of sensing the power of being 
able to gather it. There are perhaps as many reasons 
as there are people, for each of us is prompted by a motive 
or combination of motives that may not influence anybody 
else in just the same way. 

Would you like to be wealthy? Why? What would you do if you 
had as much money as Henry Ford? Give examples of classes of 
people who, you think, are inspired mainly by each of the motives 
mentioned here. What combinations of motives might influence 
various people? 

112. Public Wealth and Private Wealth. — A commun¬ 
ity as well as a person may be wealthy. Public wealth 
comprises streets, parks, public buildings, libraries, schools, 
and the like, and land not occupied by private individuals. 
The national government's wealth consists of the national 
parks, the navigable rivers and waterways within the 
country, the land belonging to it, as well as the money in its 
possession, and the Capitol, the White House, and many 
custom houses, post offices, and similar buildings in all 
parts of the country. Public wealth is generally used for 
the benefit of everybody in the community. These buildings, 
land, and the like which are owned by the whole community 
may be called public property, in contrast with the things 
owned by private citizens or companies, which we know 
as private property. 

Private wealth belongs to individuals or corporations 
and is controlled by them, as long as they do not interfere 
with the rights of others in using it. It enables them to 
have more than a mere existence, to improve themselves by 
travel, reading, and right recreation, and to get more 
pleasure out of life. Best of all, if they will only use it 
rightly, it gives those who possess it the chance to make 
the community in which they live and the people who live 
after them happier and better. 


224 


Laying Up Wealth 

Wealth, therefore, does a great deal of good for the 
community in many ways. The government taxes the 
people in order to accumulate money to provide the com¬ 
munity and those who live in it with means for improve¬ 
ment. It establishes and maintains schools, keeps up 
parks for the recreation of the people, and provides play¬ 
grounds for the children. The streets are paved and 
repaired by the use of money from the public treasury, and 
these make transportation much easier than it would other¬ 
wise be. 

Wealthy individuals have also done much good in similar 
ways. They have endowed libraries, museums, and 
colleges. Many people could not or would not give freely 
of their own private means for such purposes, if their in¬ 
comes were small or moderate, but the rich man can do so 
out of his abundance and not miss the cost. Moreover— 
and here is perhaps the chief excuse for accumulating 
wealth—thousands of large enterprises could not possibly 
be started without wealth in considerable abundance 
as a foundation. Think of the railroads, the steel mills, 
and the department stores. Wealth must be used freely 
before they can be made ready to do a single stroke of 
business. Wealth so used, as we shall see, is called capital. 

113. The Process of Getting Wealth. — The foundation 
of a country's wealth, and incidentally of the wealth of the 
people living in the country, is its natural resources. The 
timber, the waterways, the oil, gas, and minerals, the 
fertile soil, and the like, are all sources from which wealth 
is derived. When a country has great natural resources, 
its people usually become rich. 

But that these resources may be of the greatest service, 
they must be prepared for the people's use, and this involves 
labor. Coal,gold, silver, copper, and the like must be mined, 
timber must be cut in various sizes, the soil must be cul¬ 
tivated, the rivers and harbors kept in condition for naviga¬ 
tion, and desert land reclaimed. All this work takes a 


The Process of Getting Wealth 2£5 

multitude of laborers. And when we speak of laborers, we 
must consider not only manual labor—that actually done 
with the hands—but mental labor, which is just as im¬ 
portant. Our great industries could not exist without 
laborers, both of hand and of brain. 

A third factor, equally necessary to modern life, is capital. 
Capital is that part of the products of past industry which is 



We have here what is really a great magnet for handling any form of 
iron. Do you see land, labor, and capital all employed here? 

used in producing more goods. All the enterprises, big or 
little, must have capital. And capital need not be money. 
It may be factory buildings, machinery, or tools. Be sure 
to distinguish between wealth and capital. Homes, parks, 
streets, and most public wealth are not used for further 
production and therefore are not capital. Large industrial 
enterprises, mills, and even farms must have considerable 
capital to begin with, or they will not succeed. 












£26 Laying Up Wealth 

Wealth, then, is obtained by making use of labor upon 
natural resources, and employing capital as a means of 
developing them. These three sources of wealth are 
dependent upon one another. If there is no labor, capital 
is of no use. If there is no capital, labor can accomplish 
little. Capital could not exist without natural resources 
to begin with, and both labor and capital depend upon 
natural resources for the material to work upon. 

Are these capital: garden seeds, flower pots, pictures, a jack-knife, 
baseball bats, post offices, typewriters, electric lights, forges? 

Suppose a city should be wiped out by a great fire or earthquake. 
Show how the different sources of wealth would be employed in re¬ 
building it. If no wealth had been saved up, what would the town 
have to do? 

Take some particular commodity, as a shirt, a chair, or a shoe, and 
trace it back to its beginnings, showing the different sources and ap¬ 
plications of wealth in connection with it. 

114. Community Organizations to Encourage Industry. 

—As with the other elements of welfare, the community 
plays a part in promoting wealth. There are, for instance, 
such organizations as Chambers of Commerce and Boards 
of Trade. These are made up of business men who aim to 
promote the welfare of the community as well as their own 
business interests. They publish booklets and advertise¬ 
ments, and work through bureaus or committees, each with 
its particular duty to do. A National Chamber of Com¬ 
merce has been formed out of those in the cities. It under¬ 
takes to obtain expressions of opinion from its members on 
matters of national interest, and discusses problems of labor 
and capital and the like. 

Has your community a Chamber of Commerce or Board of Trade? 
What does it do? 

In order to promote the interests of the various businesses, 
those engaged in them often form associations. We may 
find, for instance, a Retail Grocers’ Association, a Milk 
Dealers’ Association, the California Fruit Growers’ Associa- 


Community Organizations 227 

tion, and even a National Association of Manufacturers. 
When they work together in this way, with certain aims 
in view, they can accomplish a great deal more than an in¬ 
dividual firm could do. Professional men, such as lawyers, 
doctors, and teachers, also have their associations, by means 
of which they can promote their especial interests and 
often do a great deal of good for the community. 



Courtesy Ford Motor Co. 
A ROOM IN THE FORD FACTORY. 


What a wonderful amount of intricate machinery is needed in a 
place such as this! 


It would be almost impossible for any individual worker 
to control the conditions under which he works. So in 
order to resist unreasonable authority on the part of em¬ 
ployers, and to promote the welfare of workers by getting 
higher wages, shorter hours of labor, and the like, many 
laborers have formed unions. At first these were not very 
effective, but they have been steadily growing and improv- 
















228 


Laying Up Wealth 

ing their organization. Now there are unions in virtually 
every trade. Most of them are united under the American 
Federation of Labor, which is a very large and powerful 
organization. They have accomplished a great deal. Once 
a dollar a day was good pay for a man, but now the same 
kind of labor can often command at least four or five 
dollars a day. The working day has been shortened from 
twelve and fourteen hours to eight, and the working condi¬ 
tions revolutionized. The unions have undoubtedly done 
a great deal of good. 

When workers are not satisfied with conditions, the unions 
may use several means to change them. Collective bar¬ 
gaining is always a feature which they emphasize. Its idea 
is to have the employer deal with the officials of the union 
only, instead of hiring each man separately. The members 
of the union are all expected to stand by the arrangements 
which their leaders make. If this method does not get 
what they want, the workers may strike, that is, refuse to 
work until the employer makes some concession to their 
demands. There is often destruction of property or even 
loss of life connected with a strike, though the leaders of 
the unions always insist that they do not encourage violence 
of any kind. If the quarrel is prolonged, the workers may 
establish a boycott, that is, get people to refuse to patronize 
their employer until he complies with their demands. 

Has there ever been a strike in your community or which affected 
your community? What caused it? How did people in general feel 
about it? How much was gained or lost by it? Whrt else are labor 
unions interested in besides higher wages and shorter hours? 

To enable workers to find employment, and employers 
to find workers, employment bureaus have been established 
in most communities. People who want work may apply 
here, and when a position is found for them, they will be 
notified. The same is true of those who wish to obtain 
help. A certain amount of money is paid by one party or 
the other to the employment bureau. 


How the Government Encourages Industry 229 

These agencies have done an important work, but there 
is so much chance for them to misunderstand matters, and 
even misrepresent conditions, that many people do not 
trust them. Under the Department of Labor, our national 
government supports national employment bureaus in 
various cities. Different parts of the country are kept in 
touch with each other, so that employers may obtain 
workers, perhaps from another part of the United States, 
and there is little need of people’s going without work in one 
place while employers lack workers in another. Many 
states and even some cities maintain similar bureaus or de¬ 
partments. 

115. How the Government Encourages Industry. — 

Understanding the importance of sound business conditions 
our governments do all they can to promote industrial 
activity in the country. In the first place, they realize 
that a man can not carry on a business wisely unless he 
knows the conditions which affect it. They therefore 
distribute various kinds of information. The national 
Department of Labor, for instance, sends out circulars and 
pamphlets containing many facts about the industries of 
the United States, statistics about the loss in wages and 
dividends caused by strikes, copies of laws regulating labor, 
and the like. The Department of Agriculture distributes 
bulletins to farmers giving them advice and information 
about crops, getting rid of insect pests, and many other 
vital problems. The Weather Bureau sends out bulletins 
twice daily, telling the probable weather, and this helps 
farmers, gardeners, fishermen, and those who transport 
perishable goods. Our government also stations consuls 
in all the important foreign cities. They look out for busi¬ 
ness opportunities, study trade conditions, and make re¬ 
ports about matters of commercial value to this country. 

The government encourages some industries in particular 
by means of tariffs and subsidies. A protective tariff is a 
tax collected on goods brought from foreign countries, 


230 


Laying Up Wealth 


which makes it necessary for an importer to raise the price 
of foreign goods brought to this country. The home pro¬ 
ducers of these taxed articles can then charge more for their 
products. This encourages people to go into certain in¬ 
dustries, whereas, if there were no tariff, they would not 
consider it profitable enough to do so. Many people have 
believed that a high protective tariff was necessary because 
in Europe wages were so low that foreign goods could be 
made and sold much more cheaply than American goods. 



RIVER BOATS ON THE ALLEGHENY. 

One of the many steel mills for which western Pennsylvania is 
famous also appears in the picture. 


Others have argued that, since the protective tariff caused 
goods to cost more, it was better for everybody in the long 
run, to buy goods wherever we could get them the most 
cheaply, and not try to encourage industries which did not 
develop naturally here. 

For a long time the Republican party has stood for a high 
protective tariff, and the Democratic for lower rates. But 
now the question does not seem so prominent a subject for 
argument as formerly. It is generally agreed among in¬ 
telligent people that while some tariff is needed to protect 






How the Government Encourages Industry 231 

i 

some of our home industries, a very high tariff is seldom 
necessary and in many cases would be of no benefit to 
anybody except a few manufacturers. A Tariff Commission 
has been established whose duty is to investigate conditions 
and make recommendations to Congress as to desirable 
changes in the tariff laws. 

Some other governments do more than we in the way of 
granting subsidies to special industries. A subsidy is a 
direct gift of money from the public treasury. In this 
country it has been most talked about in connection with 
our foreign commerce, because American ships were for a 
long time few in number in proportion to the amount of 
goods which we exported and imported. During the Great 
War we changed our policy on this matter, and under the 
government's direction many ships were built, so that our 
“merchant marine” is now second only to Great Britain's. 

We have already told how our government protects life 
and property and the means of travel, so it is not necessary 
to go over this matter again at this point. But we may 
rightly notice that without this protection the obtaining of 
wealth would be difficult. No one's savings, home, tools, 
or shop would be safe. Because manufacturers, farmers, 
and everybody else are so completely dependent upon 
transportation, we shall not need any argument to show us 
how closely related is this feature of the government's ac¬ 
tivity to the acquiring of wealth. 

In another way our government gives direct aid to in¬ 
dustry. In the city of Washington there is a Patent 
Office, with the Commissioner of Patents in charge. This 
office grants patents to inventors, giving them control of the 
manufacture and sale of their inventions for seventeen years. 
This encourages people to invent, and do something original 
and new. The copyrights, granted for the same reason to 
those who write, compose, or publish something new, have 
already been mentioned in connection with the Congres¬ 
sional Library, 


232 


Laying Up Wealth 


In spite of everything, people will get hurt. But instead 
of making the worker and his family suffer all the expense 
and want that might result from the accident, “workmen's 
compensation" laws are now common. These require the 
employer to continue to pay a considerable portion of the 
workman's wages when he is out of work by reason of in¬ 
juries received when he was on duty. Often he is allowed 



Copyright, Harris & Ewing 
THE PATENT OFFICE, WASHINGTON. 

Here are kept the records and many models of the more than 1,000,000 
patents granted to American inventors. 

to insure them in some company that makes a business of 
insuring people. Sometimes the State helps to operate in¬ 
surance funds. The employer really makes the people pay for 
this service by charging more for the things he produces, but 
the added cost which is then imposed on any one person is 
very small. 

Do you think there is any danger that these laws will be abused? If 
so, how would you remedy the situation? 

The national government pays pensions to veterans of 









How the Government Encourages Industry 233 

the army and navy. An enormous sum of money has been 
spent for this purpose. Private firms and companies may 
also pay pensions to employees after they grow too old to 
do hard or steady work any longer. Sometimes the em¬ 
ployee contributes one or two per cent of his own income 
into a pension fund. These pensions enable people to live 



Courtesy Carnegie Steel Co. 

BESSEMER CONVERTERS. 


There is something awe-inspiring about the big things done in the 
manufacture of steel, though the place where such work is done can¬ 
not look very attractive. Would you like to work here? 

comfortably during the latter years of their lives after work¬ 
ing hard for many years. 

Most big business is carried on by corporations. These 
are organizations which, in order to obtain money to invest 
in some business, issue stock, and pay dividends on it if 
the business prospers. An immense amount of capital is 
used and business conducted on a large scale- In this 




234 Laying Up Wealth 

way, corporations sometimes gain entire control of a big 
industry. 

Corporations sometimes form combinations called trusts. 
Because of these big businesses, small firms are often forced 
to drop out of the competition. So, in order to protect 
small companies, and restrain large ones from doing harm 
by unfair methods of business, the government passed the 
Sherman Anti-Trust Act in 1890. This made any “com¬ 
bination in restraint of trade between the states” unlawful. 
In 1914, the Clayton Anti-Trust Act was passed. This 
defined certain points more clearly in regard to the things 
that a corporation might or might not do. The Federal 
Trade Commission was also established in that year to 
supervise methods used by business corporations, and to 
make and publish reports setting forth their findings. 

Our railroads and telephones are largely in the hands of 
a few large corporations. But the systems are so vast 
that they can really be managed better as they are. And 
although our government discourages monopolies, they 
often can, if properly controlled, serve the public better 
than wasteful competition does. The Interstate Commerce 
Commission and the Public Service Commissions, as we have 
seen, regulate utility corporations throughout the country. 

The national government does not actually own many 
public utilities except the postal service and the Panama 
Canal. It can oversee and in a measure control railroads 
and large corporations, but the management is in the hands 
of private companies. During the Great War, as we have 
noticed, the government took over the railroads, telegraph 
lines, and other utilities, but at the end of the war these 
were returned to their owners. By a system of licenses the 
government also controlled the prices and sale of sugar, 
flour, and the like during the war. 

Some people known as Socialists believe that the govern¬ 
ment's control should be greatly extended, and that it 
should own and manage all public utilities and other great 


Conveniences of Trade 


23 5 


industries. They think that these industries concern the 
public welfare so vitally and directly that it is not safe to 
leave them in private hands. Others have proposed that 
the government should always undertake to fix prices for 
the necessities of life as it did during the war. But such 
ideas will not be adopted in the immediate future, and per¬ 
haps we had better leave the discussion of them until we 
take up the study of economics as a subject by itself. 

116. Conveniences of Trade. —Another way by which 
our government encourages industry is so important that 
we must deal with it separately. We could not hope to 
carry on the industry and business of this country unless 
we had some medium of exchange—that is, something that 
could be accepted anywhere by people who had something 
to dispose of. If we did not have money for this purpose, 
a man who wanted a new suit and had a horse to trade, 
would have to find a tailor or storekeeper who wanted a 
horse, and this might be hard to do. 

Neither would it be practicable for companies or cities, 
or even states, to have their own mediums of exchange, 
because we could not be sure that they would be of value 
except in the particular place where they were issued. So 
our national government issues money which we accept as 
a medium of exchange throughout the country. The 
value of all commodities is measured by money. 

Gold is the standard of coinage in the United States. The 
gold dollar was established in 1900 as the standard coin. 
Before that time, both gold and silver were standard. The 
gold dollar contains 23.22 grains of gold. This is nine- 
tenths of the whole weight; the other one-tenth is alloy. 
But, curiously enough, the gold dollar is too small for use 
and though it is the standard of our currency is not coined 
at all. We have gold pieces in larger denominations, and 
silver, nickel, and copper are used in making coins to repre¬ 
sent the value of one dollar and under. 

There are four mints in the country, at Philadelphia, New 


236 Laying Up Wealth 

Orleans, Denver, and San Francisco. All mints except 
that at Philadelphia mark their coins with a little letter. 

Look up and make a list of all the coins now issued by our govern¬ 
ment. Do you think any other denominations would be useful? 

Since our coins are heavy in comparison with their size, it 



International 


WEIGHING GOLD. 


At the time this picture was taken at the United States Assay 
Office in Wall Street, New York, the building contained a billion and 
a half dollars worth of gold in bars or coin. This would weigh about 
250 tons. 


would be inconvenient to carry a great many of them around. 
So we have our paper money, which is all printed at the 
Bureau of Engraving and Printing in Washington. This 
paper money is of different kinds. Gold certificates and 
silver certificates represent actual gold and silver in the 
United States Treasury. United States Notes are our gov¬ 
ernment's promises to pay, and people are willing to take 
these in payment because they are backed by Uncle Sam. 








Conveniences of Trade 


237 


These were called greenbacks during the Civil War, but 
they had no stability of value at that time, because our 
government was not in a position to exchange coin for all 
of them. Then there are National Bank Notes, issued by 
the national banks, and Federal Reserve Notes and Federal 
Reserve Bank Notes issued by the Federal Reserve banks. 
These are partially backed by gold and silver, but people 
hardly ever ask to have coin in exchange for them. 

Get samples of the different kinds of paper money and see how 
differently the wording on them reads. What is the biggest bill you 
ever saw? 

In order to encourage us to save, and to make the money 
we save useful and safe, banks have been established. 
Although banks are private institutions working under 
charters, they are very closely related to the government. 
National banks are organized under the direction of the 
government and inspected by it. State banks and trust 
companies are chartered by state governments and in¬ 
spected by them. So rightly the banks have a place here 
with the things our government does for industry. 

There are banks in all communities of any size. In the 
savings banks we may deposit our money in savings ac¬ 
counts, which usually pay about four per cent interest, or 
in checking accounts, which are carried on more as a con¬ 
venience than anything else, and do not pay much interest, 
if any. People may write checks drawing out money from 
a checking account, while they must give notice a certain 
time in advance if they wish to take any considerable 
sum of money out of a savings account. The money de¬ 
posited in banks is not merely locked away for safekeep¬ 
ing. It is used. It is loaned, or placed in investments 
which draw interest and enable the bank to obtain a profit 
from its business. People should learn to save, and the 
banks encourage them to do this. 

To be of the greatest service to the whole country, banks 
need to be organized under some centralized control. In 


238 


Laying Up Wealth 

1913, Congress passed the Glass-Owen Act, providing for 
the establishment of our great Federal Reserve system. 
The country is divided into twelve districts, and a Federal 
Reserve Bank is located in a large city of each district. All 
national banks are required to join. Other banks are 
encouraged to join, and most of them have done so. 

The Federal Reserve Board is in charge of the whole 
system, and is made up of eight members appointed by the 
President, two of whom are the Secretary of the Treasury 
and the Comptroller of the Currency. The Federal Re¬ 
serve Banks issue currency to other banks in return for 
deposits made by them. This system has proved very 
good, and has helped many banks through a tight place. 

Where is the Federal Reserve Bank located tc which the banks in 
your community belong? 

The banks receive so many checks daily, from so many 
different banks, that to straighten them out for themselves 
would mean hopeless confusion, and, indeed, would be 
almost impossible. So in every large city we find a clear¬ 
ing house. Here the banks send the checks that have been 
deposited during the day, and these are sorted and without 
much difficulty distributed to the banks to which they 
belong. The clearing house is a wonderful convenience 
to the banks. 

Trust companies do the same sort of work as the banks. 
They pay interest on money deposited with them, and 
invest it in various enterprises. They also look after 
estates and various kinds of property put in their care. 
Since national banks are not permitted to do this kind of 
business, such institutions have to be supervised by the 
states. 

117. Restrictions on Workers. — For their own good 
and that of other people, the government sometimes places 
restrictions on workers. Those who are affected by these 
restrictions do not always like them, but in the long run 


Restrictions on Workers 


239 


such regulations are a help to industry. Examples of these 
are the so-called “full crew” laws on the railroads, and the 
laws prohibiting a railroad employee’s working more than 
sixteen hours at a time. 

One class of citizens that particularly need protection are 
the children. They are not old enough, wise enough, or 
strong enough to look out for themselves. Because it is so 
very injurious to health and growth of body and mind, the 
employment of young children in industry is now forbidden 
by law. An age limit is set below which no child may work 
regularly. This is usually fourteen, but in some trades it is 
higher than that. 

When manufacturing began in this country, especially 
in the New England states, the factory owners employed 
children because they would work for very small wages. 
Very young children often worked as many as fourteen hours 
a day. Of course the inevitable result was poor health 
and stunted bodies and minds. The evils of child labor 
were not seen at first, but when they were, the states began 
to take action against it, and now almost every state in the 
union has its laws concerning the employment of children. 

In most states children under fourteen can not work 
regularly at all, and if under sixteen, they must attend the 
continuation schools which we have already mentioned. 
Forty-eight hours a week, including the time at continua¬ 
tion school, is the longest time for work permitted by the 
states which have good child labor laws. Some states 
where selfish and short-sighted mill-owners had political 
influence, were slow about making reforms. 

Since most of the child workers of the country could be 
reached only by state laws, Congress thought it would set 
them a good example by trying to prevent the carrying 
in inter-state commerce of goods made by child labor. 
The Supreme Court declared that such laws were uncon¬ 
stitutional. Congress finally proposed to amend the 
Constitution so as to give it the right to pass child 


240 


Laying Up Wealth 


labor laws. That amendment is now (1924) before the 
states for their consideration. 

What reason would any children have for wanting to work in a 
mill or a mine or a canning factory? Would it ever be justifiable for 
them to do so? What harm might they get into? 



Women as well as children are protected by labor laws. 

These are similar to the 
child labor laws in that 
they limit the number 
of hours and the condi¬ 
tions under which work 
may be done. Women 
are physically unfit to 
do certain kinds of 
labor, or to work too 
many hours at a time. 
But they have become 
very proficient in some 
positions, such as stenog¬ 
raphers, clerks, sales¬ 
women, and teachers. 
Now many women are 
studying medicine, law, 
and such subjects. There 
are thousands of women 
employed in factories, 
but so long as proper 
working conditions exist, 
little harm is done. 
Perhaps you do not 
yet see how these laws are of any use to any one except 
the children and women who are protected. But it is 
they who will be particularly responsible for happy homes 
and healthy lives in the years to come. If their health 
and morals are not properly cared for, the time will soon 


OPERATORS IN A BIG TELEGRAPH 
OFFICE. 

These girls receive the messages which 
are transcribed on a typewriter to be 
transmitted to different places. 





241 


Problems that Wealth Brings 

be here when our workers will be weak and sickly, unable 
to do first-class work of any kind. If their standards of 
life and conduct are not hopelessly ruined, at best we 
could expect them to be no better than harmless drudges, 
without sufficient energy or intelligence to lift themselves 
or any one else to a higher standard. Such people would 
do poor work in industry and would be a drag on society. 

118. Problems that Wealth Brings.—You may have 
heard people say that they would not like to be rich because 
there are so many worries connected with wealth. Perhaps 
you thought they were joking, but there is much truth in 
the statement. It is not all fun to be rich. Just as truly 
for a community or a nation, problems of wealth are great 
and very serious. 

What are some of the worries and troubles of a rich man which a 
poor man would not experience? 

We like to think of America as a democratic country, 
where all men are equal. But in some respects this is far 
from true. To be sure, we have no nobility, nor a peasant 
class, but there are class distinctions, and these are largely 
due to wealth. A person who is rich will sooner or later 
acquire social standing, no matter what his previous posi¬ 
tion was; for ancestry is not an essential to social position 
in this country, except possibly in the older communities 
and states. 

Wealthy people sometimes feel superior to others, and 
look down upon them, though the poorer people maybe 
more deserving than the rich. They probably work a great 
deal harder, and yet they never get ahead. This thought 
suggests to us what is sometimes called the problem of 
distribution. The wealth of a community is really pro¬ 
duced by the efforts of all the people together. Now, how 
can we arrange matters so that everybody will get what 
he really earns? 

It is not strange that a man who works hard all day long, 


242 


Laying Up Wealth 


every day, feels a little discontended when he sees another 
man spending two or three hours in the office, and receiving 
a very large salary. He thinks that this is not fair. Some¬ 
times people who never did a stroke of work in their lives 
inherit enough money to keep them in luxury all their 
days. They will say, “Well, my father worked hard for it. 
Why shouldn’t I get the benefit of it? ” But to a poor man 
this view does not seem fair. He does not see why the 
person who works hardest should not have the highest 



A RICH MAN’S RESIDENCE. 

It takes the entire time of at least one man to look after these 
grounds. Is the community better off because of this expense? 
Is a man who can afford to maintain such a place under any obliga¬ 
tion to the community? 

salary. He becomes discontented, indifferent, and un¬ 
willing to do his best. 

Some people think that, if it were not possible for a 
person to get an abundance of riches which he did nothing 
to earn the good things of life would be more evenly dis¬ 
tributed. They declare that a very high inheritance tax 
would help to solve the problem. They also believe that 
big incomes should be taxed very heavily, with a higher 




243 


Problems that Wealth Brings 

rate per cent collected as the size of the income increases. 
Under such laws a person who inherited a large sum of 
money or whose yearly income was high would have to 
give a great deal of it to the government. It would then 
be used for public expenses, and the tax on the other, poorer 
people would be very much less. Of course, such inher¬ 
itance laws could be evaded in part by a man's giving his 
money and property to the people to whom he wishes to 
give it, before he dies, instead of making a will. 

“Money means power” seems to be the viewpoint of most 
Americans. And too often this is really true in a bad sense. 
Money has many evil influences. It is used wrongly in 
business. People use it to corner the market on various 
commodities, and in this way to dictate their own terms 
to the public and make enormous profits for themselves. 
It is said that half the wealth of the United States is owned 
by two per cent, of the people. J. Pierpont Morgan and 
those who were associated with him in business are said 
to have controlled wealth to the amount of $9,000,000,000— 
considerably more than the entire wealth of the United 
States in 1850. How completely dependent we are, then, 
on a few men! What an awful responsibility rests on them 
to use their power rightly! 

Money has been used to bribe public officials. To be 
sure, an honest officer with a backbone will not be bribed, 
but all too many of them are not able to resist temptation. 
Enormous sums of money are spent, sometimes dishonestly, 
to get certain men in office, the kind of men who can be 
induced to do things not for the good of all. People have 
paid policemen not to see or hear certain things, or to stay 
away from a certain place. In political campaigns, the 
evil influence of money is easily seen. It costs money 
to tell people how good you are or how bad the other fellow 
is, and the poor man can not afford such expense. Of 
course, then, when people spend a great deal of money to 
get a poor man an office, they expect to be remembered 


244 


Laying Up Wealth 

after the election. If he is a law-maker, they expect him 
not to vote or any laws which will inconvenience them. 

Few of us realize the forces at work to do wrong. We 
should think that when people see the evil of a thing, they 
would right it; but instead of this, many of them will either 
use every influence to get this evil power for themselves, or 
sit quiet and say, '‘What's the use?” Money gets special 
favors for people in hospitals, railroad trains, hotels, and 
even churches. Newspapers, as we have noticed, will often 
refuse to print anything unpleasant about a firm which ad¬ 
vertises in them, for fear of losing their patronage. 



A WEALTHY MAN’S GIFT. 

The Carnegie Museum, Music Hall, and Library, at Pittsburgh. 


A wealthy man may own the one newspaper in a town, or 
even a string of them in great cities clear across the con¬ 
tinent. If he can get a brainy and unscrupulous person 
to edit them, he can give his readers false views of the events 
of the world and inspire in them unworthy prejudices and 
ideals of selfishness. Thus, as it has been put, “the foun¬ 
tain of knowledge is poisoned at its source.” 

Yes, there is a great deal to be done to abolish the evils 
which money brings. The general public—which means 
you and me—must do this. Selfish men who want to get 
still richer by their selfishness, and cowardly men, who are 





Relations of the Employer and the Employee 245 

afraid to do what they know is right, will never help much 
to make the world or our part of it happier. 

Is tipping justifiable? 

119. Relations of the Employer and the Employee. — 

It sometimes seems as if employees and the people who 
employ them are miles apart. Because both of them are 
necessary to any industry and each depends on the other, 
they ought not to regard each other as enemies. Of course 



PORT SUNLIGHT. 

This is a model industrial village in England built by the Lever 
Brothers for their employees. The houses are rented for a few shill¬ 
ings a week, and facilities for all kinds of recreation and culture are 
afforded. 

it is for the employer's interests to get as large returns as 
possible from the money he has invested and from the 
work of those whom he hires to labor in his shop or factory. 
Yet very often when an employer undertakes to introduce 
some new system of scientific management or some method 
by which the worker will accomplish more in the same 
length of time, the employees look upon it as an attempt to 
get more out of them. 

Of course it is true that some employers have been guilty 







246 


Laying Up Wealth 

of trying to see how much work they can get done and how 
little they must pay for having it done. On the other 
hand there has sometimes prevailed among the workers the 
notion that there was a certain amount of work that had 
to be done anyway, and that if this could be divided among 
a sufficient number of people nobody would need to work 
hard or very long. To prevent an employer's setting up 
an unreasonable standard of work, in many cases a labor 
union adopts a rule that limits the amount of work a mem¬ 
ber may do a day. For example, a member of a brick¬ 
layers’ union will lay a certain number of bricks and no 
more in a hour, even though he might be able to do con¬ 
siderably more than this without hurting himself. 

Sometimes when the workers are particularly ill-disposed 
toward their employer they will indulge in what is known 
as sabotage. This is deliberately doing poor work or damag¬ 
ing the material that is used or harming the machinery, or 
m some other underhanded way hurting their employer's 
business. Sometimes they endeaver to induce workers who 
have no grievance against their own employer to go out on 
strike, in order to induce that employer to advise a fellow 
employer to yield in some labor dispute in which he is 
concerned. This kind of thing is called a sympathetic 
strike. Many people who think that a strike or even a 
boycott is sometimes justifiable do not believe that it is 
right to make an innocent employer suffer on account of 
somebody else's trouble. 

The employers also sometimes use harsh methods to 
gain the upper hand in a labor quarrel. They will some¬ 
times close their doors and proclaim a lockout until the 
workers will come to terms. If some particular individuals 
are troublesome, the employer may establish a blacklist. 
Then if a worker whose name is on this list tries to get 
employment in some other place he will find it difficult to 
do so, because his former employer will advertise the 
names of those on his black-listo 


Relations of the Employer and the Employee 247 

The better type of employers honestly wish to avoid 
quarrels with their employees and even to treat them more 
than fairly. In a good many factories welfare work has 
been undertaken. By this we mean the establishment of 
club houses, gymnasiums, reading rooms, social parlors, 
and the like, which the workers may use whenever they 
are not engaged in their daily toil. Sometimes employers 
even build tenements and rent or sell them at reasonable 



A PHASE OF WELFARE WORK. 

This factory operates a cafeteria where the workers may get lunch 
of good quality at a lower price than they could buy it outside. 


figures. Sometimes systems of profit sharing are intro¬ 
duced. Where these are in operation the workers have a 
share in the business if the profits go beyond a certain 
point. Measures of this kind are meant to make the worker 
feel that the business is his business as well as the employer’s. 

Often a labor dispute occurs because one side does not 
understand the other. To remove any possibility of any 
such misunderstanding and to give the workers an actual 




248 


Laying Up Wealth 

voice in the operation of the business, some interesting 
systems have been started which are spoken of as industrial 
democracy. The workers elect some of their own number to 
serve in a “house of representatives” or an “assembly”; 
and matters concerning conditions under which work is 
carried on, the hours of labor, or even the wages are referred 
to the representatives of the workers. It is said that in at 
least one place the representatives of the workers volun¬ 
tarily voted for a reduction of wages. 

In almost every state there is a state bureau or commis¬ 
sion which has the right to offer its services in helping to 
settle a labor dispute. But nowhere in this country has 
any system been adopted that will require parties in an 
industrial quarrel to arbitrate before a state board, except 
that the state of Kansas has established a court of Industrial 
Relations and practically made it compulsory that labor 
quarrels be brought before this board. 

Is it better for labor disputes to be settled by the parties themselves 
if possible? Would you feel any differently toward a business in 
which you were employed if you had something to say about the con¬ 
ditions under which you worked? If the employer is a fair-minded and 
open-minded man, will a system of industrial democracy add anything 
to the success of the business? 

120. The Farmer as a Wealth Producer. — Many 
thoughtful people have been greatly disturbed by the fear 
that the farms were going to be deserted. We have seen 
statistics showing the rapid growth of cities and villages 
and the reduction at each new census in the proportion 
of people who live on farms. In speaking of our country’s 
food supply we noticed the importance of the farmer. We 
can not get along without him. Why is it, then, that so 
many of our people either make fun of the farmer or are 
not willing to try farm life for themselves? In late years 
farmers have found it almost impossible to get the help 
necessary at certain seasons of the year. As a result apples 
and potatoes have rotted on the ground even when they 


The Farmer as a Wealth Producer 249 


were selling for high prices in the city. Even at that, farm 
children have sometimes been kept out of school for months 
in order to do that part of the farm tasks which was within 
their power. 

One reason why some people have no liking for the farm 
is that at certain times, as in the haying and harvesting 
seasons, the hours of work are long. At these times the 
farmers work almost from sunrise to sunset. There seems 
to be the impression, too, that farm life is terribly lonely 



A TRUCK GARDEN IN EARLY SUMMER. 

This owner grows vegetables for the city market. Scenes like this 
are common a few miles outside of our large cities. 


and that even when there is no work to do there is no way 
to spend one's spare time or to have any enjoyment. 

The labor question on the farm is most serious because 
there are certain times as in winter when there is relatively 
little to do. The farmer does not want to pay as high 
wages all the year as he pays in the busy season. And so the 
farmer has had to take a poor quality of workers who were 
willing to come for low wages the year round or take chances 
on the uncertain character of people whom he could employ 
m busy seasons. In the great western farms the managers 





£50 


Laying Up Wealth 

have sometimes had to depend upon men who would move 
from one farm to another during the harvesting season. 

But, after all, farming offers some advantages which 
no other business possesses in the same degree. The life 
in the great outdoors surely must be more healthful than 
any indoor occupation can be. Except at the rush seasons 
the farmer is pretty nearly the master of his own time. He 
does not fear famine, unless conditions of soil and climate 
have been so poor that everybody else will have to suffer 
with him. He is doing a work which everybody knows that 



Courtesy International Harvester Co. 

HARVESTING AND THRESHING ON A BIG WESTERN FARM. 

How many men and how much more time would be needed to do 
this work in the old way! 

the world cannot get along without. Farm life is no longer 
the monotonous lonely existence which so many of us think 
it to be. We have already referred to the farmer’s automo¬ 
biles, telephones, rural mail delivery, and to the programs 
for good roads which are of more importance to the 
country districts than to the city. There are very many 
of the labor-saving conveniences like washing-machines, 
vacuum sweepers, and gasoline engines which most farmers 
can have as well as city people. More and more atten- 







The Right Use of Wealth 


251 


tion is given each year to the country school and in some 
states programs are already in operation which are intended 
to serve the rural community as well educationally as any 
other neighborhood. 

Best of all, the farmer is taking himself more seriously. 
He knows that it takes brains to run a farm and he is trying 
to make his own brains count as much as possible. A 
budget system for keeping accounts; the planting of crops 
in rotation and the use of proper fertilizers so as to get the 
most good from the soil; the usefulness of national and state 
departments of agriculture in giving advice and instruction 
to guard against insects and wild animals—all these things 
are helping to make farming a real business. The farmer 
still has to depend upon the railroad for carrying his crops 
to market. He still must make use of the commission 
agent or some kind of middleman to help him sell his goods. 
But the numerous cooperative movements for marketing 
farmers’ products are helping the farmer to become more 
independent of the middleman. As the means improve for 
getting the farmer’s goods in the easiest and quickest way 
to the consumer, the farmer becomes more and more his 
own master. Whatever tends to keep the farmer happy 
is likely to promote the interest of the whole country. 

121. The Right Use of Wealth.—The American people 
are noted for their extravagance. Most of them do not 
realize the value of wealth or understand how closely other 
nations have had to economize in order to be prosperous. 
The whole nation, as well as every individual American, 
must learn to use wealth to the best advantage. 

As we have said, the natural resources of a country make 
up a large part of its wealth. We, as a nation, have ruth¬ 
lessly destroyed and wasted these resources. It is only 
recently that much thought has been given to the problem of 
conservation, but we now find it one of the biggest questions 
confronting us, and the people are beginning to wake up to 
the fact that it is very serious. Do you ask what conserva- 


252 Laying Up Wealth 

tion is? It means using the resources that we have in such a 
way that we can turn them over to those who come after 
us in good condition, instead of wasting and ruining them. 

When the first settlers came to America, over forty-five 
per cent of the United States was covered with forests. 
These have been wantonly destroyed. Of course, wood 
was needed to build cabins, to use for fuel, and to make 



Courtesy Forest Service. 

A FINE FOREST OF YELLOW PINE. 

In the Bitterroot National forest, Montana. Notice how tall and 
straight the trees are and how free from underbrush. 

furniture. Clearings had to be made in order to build the 
houses, and the trees cut down were seldom used. People 
were, and still are, very careless, and as a result thousands 
of square miles of forest have been destroyed. It takes 
very little arithmetic to show that unless the greatest care 
is used, it will not be long until there will be practically no 
forests in the United States. 




The Right Use of Wealth 


253 


Our national government has therefore set aside forest 
reserves, where the timber can not be cut or the land used 
in any way without special permission. The Forest Service 
also grows trees to be planted to make up the loss of those 
which are cut down. As we have seen, it keeps watch also 
to prevent fires started by foolish campers or other means, 
from sweeping over acres or miles of valuable timber. 

Some states have their own forest reserves, conducted 
under the direction of a state forester or department of 
forestry. New York and Pennsylvania are notable ex¬ 
amples of this policy. It is much to their credit. 

What is the condition of the forests in your state? Do you have 
state forest reserves or officials to deal with the use or growth of trees? 
Does your state have industries which make use of the forests of other 
states? Find out what states produce the greatest amount of lumber. 
What is the object in observing Arbor Day? 

The United States was endowed, too, with such a bounti¬ 
ful supply of minerals that little thought of carefulness and 
economy in using them entered the people’s minds. Miners 
have left quantities of valuable ore in the mines, taking 
only that which was richest and easiest to get. Coal 
has been used wastefully by factories, railroads, and people 
in general. Careless mining has sometimes caused the 
surface to cave in, destroying streets and buildings, and 
ruining the ground above and the mines below. 

To prevent or remedy these evils, where it is not too late 
already, strict laws have been passed by many states where 
mining is common. They often establish a Department 
of Mines or Bureau of Mines with authority to enforce 
the laws and to recommend measures for improvement. 
We have also a national Bureau of Mines in the Department 
of the Interior. It does the same kind of work as the state 
mining officials, preaching conservation whenever it has the 
opportunity, and conducting experiments to promote the 
safety of workers in mines. 

In all probability the Creator put these metals and 


254 


Laying Up Wealth 


minerals in the earth for men to use. Sometimes it is hard 
to decide just how it is best to handle the problem of using 
them wisely and still not wasting them. Alaska, for 
instance, is said to have rich coal fields. Shall we let 
private individuals who have money and enterprise go into 
these fields and help themselves? 

It seems like a kind of “ dog-in-the-manger ’' policy to keep 



EFFECTS INEFFECTIVE 

BUT AND 

. WASTEFUL WASTEFUL 

K ___ y ___/ 

WRONG 

ONE EXAMPLE OF THRIFT OR WASTEFULNESS. 

This may seem like a small matter, but in the course of a year con¬ 
siderable gas would be wasted by improper placing of cooking vessels 
on burners. 

everybody out for fear they might not do their work rightly. 
Still, this wealth belongs to the people. Should not all of 
us get some benefit from it instead of letting a few people 
become still richer just because they have the necessary 
wealth to start work getting out the wealth beneath the 
surface? 

















255 


The Right Use of Wealth 

Our national and state laws have been very generous in 
letting people “stake out claims” and work them or sell them 
as they see fit. Many people believe it is wiser and fairer 
to rent such privileges rather than give them away, and to 
require the payment of a “royalty" to the government of a 
certain sum for each ton mined. Then all of us could get 
some benefit from the natural wealth which the Creator 
gave our country, and we could easily take away the license 



Copyright, McCulloch, Phoenix. 
THE ROOSEVELT DAM. 


This was the first great irrigation dam to be constructed by the 
Federal government. It helps to store up 200,000,000 gallons of 
water. 

or privilege of a company or a person who did his work 
carelessly or wastefully. 

Does your state have mines or quarries? Of what kind? What 
states lead in the production of the most common metals and minerats? 
To what extent are the industries of your state dependent upon 
mining? Does it make any difference to you what the mining laws 
of other states are? Make a map of the United States showing the 
natural resources for which the various sections are notable. 








256 


Laying Up Wealth 



In the West are vast regions of desert land. The soil 
here is exceedingly fertile, but nothing can grow because 
there is no water. But let this land be “reclaimed” by 
bringing water to it, and the words of the old prophet are 
fulfilled—“the desert shall grow and blossom as the rose.” 

It costs money to do this. Here we have the same 

old question, “Shall we 
let people who are rich 
become still richer be¬ 
cause they have the 
money to construct 
great reservoirs and 
systems of irrigating 
canals, or shall the 
government do this 
work and supply the 
water to the small farm¬ 
er and the big rancher 
alike?” Many wonder¬ 
ful things have been 
done by private com¬ 
panies, as when they 
took the water of the 
Colorado River out into 
the Imperial Valley of 
California. But for¬ 
tunately our govern¬ 
ment has not left it all 
to be done by private 
means. It has con¬ 
structed great dams and reservoirs from which water flows 
to some millions of acres which otherwise would never 
have been cultivated. 

The irrigation of this land has made it wonderfully pro¬ 
ductive. Large orchards and farms have grown up where 
formerly there was nothing but the dry desert. Oranges, 


ONE KIND OF WORK FOR WOMEN. 

This girl is putting cement on the 
edges of uppers on tennis shoes. It is 
remarkable to what extent machinery 
has been made to do these minor fea¬ 
tures of manufacture. 




The Right Use of Wealth 


257 


apples, cantaloupes, and cotton are among the many 
products of the “Great American Desert” which once stood 
out so prominently on the maps of the West in the old 
geographies. 

The giving away of public land or selling it at a low price 
is another example of the community’s doing things for the 
benefit of its members. Perhaps we were too generous 
in disposing of it. Certainly we were not careful enough 
to see that the land we gave away was used by the people 
who received it and not grabbed by rich corporations. 

From very early days our government has followed the 
policy of encouraging people to occupy the free land which 
once existed in such abundance in the Middle West and Far 
West. This land was in part given to veterans of our vari¬ 
ous wars, and for a time the government sold to anybody as 
much land as he cared to buy. 

But since our government’s intention was to get people 
settled on this land, the plan just mentioned was not de¬ 
pendable. Many people would buy the land merely that 
they might sell it again at a higher price. In 1862 there¬ 
fore Congress passed the first Homestead Act. Any settler 
who had the nerve to go in a new country and live on a 
piece of land for five years could become the owner of it by 
paying a very small fee. This policy is still in force, though 
the time required has now been reduced to three years. 
The most frequent size of homesteads under these laws is 
a quarter section—one hundred sixty acres. Even these 
laws have been evaded by greedy speculators. However, 
if it had not been for the encouragement given to our 
pioneers, much of our great West might still be as wild as 
in the days of Columbus. 

How to make the best use of the water power which can 
be of so great service to the country is another difficult 
question. It is not desirable for it to be serving the people 
in no way at all, yet it is not fair to have a few rich corpora¬ 
tions get hold of all of it. Sometimes, as in the case of 


Laying Up Wealth 


258 

Niagara Falls and the marvelous waterfalls in some of our 
national parks, there has been lively argument between 
the people who wish to preserve the falls to be admired by 



ONE OF AMERICA’S SCENIC WONDERS. 

Tourists from all over the world come to see marvelous Niagara. 
There is a great temptation to use waterfalls like this for power in 
such a way as to destroy their beauty, but thus far Niagara has been 
sufficiently safeguarded. The state of New York has set aside the 
neighboring ground as a public park. 











The Right Use of Wealth 


259 


lovers of nature and those who do not care what happens 
to our natural resources so long as they can make some 
money out of them. Thus far it has been possible to save 
our famous waterfalls from any material damage. A federal 
water power commission, consisting of the Secretary of 
Agriculture, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary 
of the Interior, has been given power to pass judgment on all 
applications for the use of water power on our national 
public land. 

Our animal life has also suffered greatly at the hands of 
both white man and red man. People tell us that when the 
passenger pigeons used to migrate north and south they 
traveled in such large flocks that they darkened the sky. 
Today there is not a passenger pigeon in the country. 
Other animals, like the buffalo, have been killed in large 
numbers, and fish have also been destroyed. There are 
now laws in every state regulating hunting and fishing, 
and mills are forbidden to put anything into streams that 
would kill the fish. 

Because some women and girls are vain and thoughtless, 
Congress has found it necessary to pass a similar law which 
forbids the transportation of the plumage of certain birds 
in interstate commerce. Otherwise it would not be many 
years before they would all be killed. We also have a 
treaty with the British government to protect birds which 
migrate back and forth between the United States and 
Canada. 

All these—the forests, the metals and minerals, the land, 
the water power, the animals and the birds—are our coun¬ 
try's wealth. What are we going to do with them? Shall 
we be careful in the treatment of them, and conserve them 
for future generations to enjoy and appreciate, or are we 
going to continue to use them selfishly and blindly? 

To use wealth wisely is just as important for the individ¬ 
ual as for the nation. The work of the nation is, after all, 
what the individuals do who compose it. Many people 


260 


Laying Up Wealth 


use their money only for personal gratification, and spend 
nothing except for selfish interests. They spend it ex¬ 
travagantly, and do not realize the value of it. Some 
expenses for personal pleasure are, of course, allowable, but 
we can see to it that in such cases we do not encourage 
anything that harms us or the community. Money used 
for the endowment of libraries, museums, colleges, and the 
like, does the people real, lasting good. There are also very 
worthy objects and institutions which can be helped by 
small contributions. 

What would you do with Rockefeller’s wealth if you had it? He 
has a staff of helpers who do nothing else but give away his money. 
Why is this? 

122. Saving and Spending. — Perhaps you have known 
people who would be very angry if you accused them of 
extravagance, yet who could not for the life of them tell 
where the money had gone which they had received during 
the year. One of the best ways of handling expenses so 
as to make such ignorance impossible, is the family budget. 
A budget is simply an estimate of the probable expenses 
for any group of people for a certain length of time. It is 
usually accompanied by an estimate of the ways to meet 
these expenses. By keeping a family budget, the head of 
the house can find out the items which cause the greatest 
expense, and can judge where economy can be used. Ex¬ 
penses can be regulated and cut down by this means. 

Does your family use a budget system? If not, why not? How 
many families in your acquaintance do so? 

In its budget every family ought to try to make an 
allowance for savings. Some people simply put money 
away in a box or even an old stocking, it is said, and of 
course, that is better than no savings at all. One of the 
best ways, however, to save wealth is by making good in¬ 
vestment, for then your money is not idle. It is being 
used in some way to promote the business of the community 


261 


Saving and Spending 

and is earning something for you at the same time. You 
can at least put it on interest in the savings bank. 

It is always safe to buy government bonds. Billions of 
dollars’ worth of Liberty Bonds were bought during the 
war. These are in many ways the best investment we can 
make. We know that they are backed by Uncle Sam and 
are perfectly safe. A great many Thrift Stamps and War 
Savings Stamps were also bought. The boys and girls in 



RECEIVING DEPOSITS IN A SCHOOL BANK. 

These folks are learning while at school to save and be thrifty. 


school helped wonderfully along this line. They gave up 
some of the things they wanted in order to help then- 
country, and they incidentally laid something aside for the 
future. 

Besides government bonds, people may buy the stock 
or bonds issued by a substantial business corporation. 
People will usually be able to get their money back if they 
wish to sell such securities, and will have been getting 








262 


Laying Up Wealth 

returns from them besides. Many people put their money 
into real estate and mortgages, and these are generally 
good investments. But we should carefully avoid all 
“get-rich-quick” schemes, and stock in an enterprise of 
which we know nothing. For in spite of the “Blue Sky” 
laws which, as we have mentioned, several states have 
passed, there are some people who manage to sell fraud¬ 
ulent stock, and avoid the penalty of the laws. Oil 
companies, gas companies, and mining companies that 
never did and never could amount to anything, have 
stolen the savings of many a poor man or woman. 

Did you buy Liberty Bonds or War Savings Stamps during the 
war? Did your school do anything to help in the sale of these? 

Bring in specimens of advertisements that seem suspicious; of 
others that seem straight. 

In order to get the full value of our wealth, we must con¬ 
sider seriously this problem of saving and spending. How 
much shall each of us save and spend? Perhaps we do not 
realize it, but during the war, the individual saving in food 
helped largely toward the maintenance of our army and the 
aid we gave to the countries of Europe. 

We must spend some money. There are certain com¬ 
modities which are essential to life, and others that make our 
lives comfortable. There is no doubt that a person who 
earns money appreciates the value of it more than one who 
does not. But if we keep account of our expenditures, 
and analyze that account, we realize how easy it is to spend 
money. 

Now we do not wish to be miserly. A tight-fisted person, 
one who holds to his money as if it were glued to his hands, 
is not an asset in any community. But we should try to 
spend our money wisely. We must ask ourselves, when we 
are considering the purchase of any article, whether we 
need it, and, if so, whether we need it at once. Some 
people can not resist buying a thing if it is offered at a 


Saving and Spending 


263 


bargain, even if they do not need it. A purchase of that 
kind is just so much money thrown away, because the 
article is useless. Then we must consider what we need 
most. If we spend our money on unimportant things, we 
can not buy what we really need. 

It is important that every person, as well as every family, 
should learn to save. When we are young, we must provide 
something for the future, for the time when we shall not be 



PROFIT IN WASTE MATERIALS. 

This junk dealer specializes in bottles which other people throw 
away. 


able to earn a living. Boys and girls in school should learn 
to follow some definite plan for saving. Banks often send 
a representative to the schools to get the money the pupils 
wish to deposit. This makes it unnecessary for the pupils to 
go to the bank, and enables them to save small sums of 
money. 

Savings should be planned for as regularly as rent, or 
food, or clothing. Systematic saving will accomplish 






264 


Laying Up Wealth 

much more than intermittent fits of it. After all, common 
sense is the ‘‘one thing needful” in these matters. If we 
think carefully before we spend, and reason out our 
probable needs, we shall not make many mistakes in the use 
of wealth. 

Do you have a bank account? Do you keep account of the money 
you spend? How much money do you spend for things that are not 
important? Where does your spending money come from? 

123. Responsibility for Prosperity.—A part of the 
responsibility for a community’s prosperity rests upon pub¬ 
lic officials. There are a great many officers who handle 
public money. It is their duty to spend it honestly, and 
to see that it is used for the good of the community. They 
should be efficient and economical in this matter, because 
the money is the public’s and is to be used in serving the 
public. Officers who enforce the laws pertaining to industry 
that we have discussed in this chapter, should feel their 
responsibility. Unenforced laws are of no value, and 
those which regulate our industries for the benefit of every¬ 
body should certainly be carried out. 

If we should try to make a list of all the public officers 
who have any influence upon the wealth of the community, 
we should need to mention all there are, from the street 
sweeper or the country postmaster up to the President him¬ 
self. But let us confine our table to those whose positions 
are rather directly connected with the encouragement of the 
occupations by which people earn a living. 


LOCAL 


STATE NATIONAL 


Mayor 

Department of Docks 
and Ferries 
Board of Education 
or 

School Directors 


Governor President 

Departments of Agri- Department of State 
culture Consular Service 

Banking Department of Treas¬ 

ury 
Mints 

Forestry Post Office Depart¬ 

ment 


Responsibility for Prosperity 


265 


NATIONAL 

Department of the In¬ 
terior 

Bureau of Public 
Land 

Reclamation Service 
Geological Survey 
Patent Office 
Bureau of Mines 
Bureau of Pensions 
Department of Agri¬ 
culture 
(all bureaus) 
Department of Com¬ 
merce 

(all bureaus) 
Department of Labor 
Interstate Commerce 
Commission 
Federal Trade Com¬ 
mission 

Tariff Commission 
Federal Reserve Board 

Why should the list of local officers be so few and that of state and 
of national officers so large? 

Business men, too, play a big part in our prosperity. 
Altogether too few business men follow a farsighted policy 
in their transactions. So many of them, when their selfish 
interests conflict with those of the whole community, are 
likely to look out for Number One. Nor is this strange. 
It is only natural to try to promote our own good, and our 
government could not ask people to carry on business for 
charity. But if a man really has the condition of his com¬ 
munity at heart, he will not let selfish motives entirely 
govern his actions. 

The business man should play fair. He should practice 
the square deal toward those whom he employs, and toward 
other business men. If he does this, others will be benefited. 
His employees will be rewarded according to their efforts. 


LOCAL STATE 

Caretakers of Public Fisheries 
Property 

Mines 

Insurance 

Labor and Industry 

Public Service Com¬ 
mission 



266 Laying Up Wealth 

and they in turn will want to promote his business and his 
good name. 

Public opinion, here as always, counts mightily. Almost 
every step toward higher standards has been taken on 
account of it, and it is a greater force than anything else. 
Public sentiment was at the back of the laws passed to pro¬ 
tect workers, to control large business, and to insure the peo¬ 
ple the rights and privileges which should be theirs. Public 


AN ATTRACTIVE OUTSIDE VIEW OF A GREAT DEPARTMENT STORE. 
Business buildings need not be ugly if their owners take an interest 
in the appearance of their neighborhood. 

sentiment regulates the actions of the law-makers, and those 
who carry out the laws. Let us see to it that neither our own 
selfishness or ignorance, nor the greed of other people, shall 
permit any lower standards to prevail in business than ir 
our dealings with men and women in any other respect. 

Why do some people seem willing to practise sharp tricks in business 
which they would not think of doing in other relations of life? 




Preparing for Usefulness 


267 


And the individual has his place, small though it may 
seem, in prosperity. If we are careless and wasteful our¬ 
selves in managing our own private affairs, we are likely to 
get the habit and act the same way in working for some one 
else or in doing public business. If we do not insist on the 
practice of the square deal by others, some of them will be 
sharpers and thieves. The wealth of the country is made 
up of yours and mine and John’s and Mary’s and Henry’s 
put together. If every boy or girl, man or woman, would 
use his own particular share of wealth’ honestly and wisely, 
our towns, cities, states, and national government would be 
happy, prosperous places indeed. 

124. Preparing for Usefulness. — Let us be sure to 
remember, too, that before any one can have wealth, some¬ 
body must produce it. Not one of us has a right to be a 
loafer or any other kind of slacker. Not even Rockefeller 
would try to excuse himself from working. 

To be able to provide for himself properly, no one ought to 
wait until he is thrown upon his own resources before he 
undertakes to learn to do something. No matter how rich the 
family to which any boy or girl belongs, the time may come 
when every member will have to earn a living. For most of 
us there is no ‘‘may’ ’ or ‘ ‘perhaps” about it—we know we must 
do so. We ought, then, to think often and earnestly about 
the trade or profession which we are best fitted to enter. 
In school we ought to have opportunities to study and talk 
over the various occupations, not with the idea of finding 
the easiest one, but the one best fitted for us. ‘‘No square 
pegs in round holes” would be a good slogan for any class. 

The community is also much concerned in preparing its 
members for usefulness. If everybody is doing what he can 
do best, few people will be poor and everybody will be con¬ 
tributing as much as possible to the community. Citizens 
who are happy will have no excuse for complaining or 
trouble-making, and workers who have chosen their occupa¬ 
tions wisely are not likely to find themselves out of a job. 


268 


Laying Up Wealth 

Now how can wise advice be best given and this vital 
choice be made most intelligently? In the first place a pupil 
must discover his own qualities. Sometimes he inherits 
certain likings. Sometimes a chance incident brings out 
interest in some kind of work which remains permanently. 
These personal qualities and interests should be given first 
consideration. The financial conditions of a person’s family 
sometimes make it necessary to direct his studies into some 
particular field. He must know what special traits of char¬ 
acter are essential in any occupation in which he is interest¬ 
ed, and, if he does not possess them, whether he can develop 
them. For instance, a boy who lacks perseverance and can 
not wait or work hard without getting returns promptly 
should not undertake to prepare himself to be a physician. 
But one should not be led astray by opportunities to make 
a few dollars in an occupation in which little training is re¬ 
quired. That kind of thing is often called a blind alley job. 
You can get in it all right, but you get nowhere from it. 

If a person is obliged to go into a position for the sake of 
earning money, when he would like to train for some higher 
occupation, he does not need to drop all hope of being in the 
other position. There are so many chances of studying 
in night schools or trade schools or with the help of cor¬ 
respondence schools that if a person has good health and 
uses his time wisely he can keep on learning while he is 
earning a living for himself and perhaps for others. 

Make a list of the ideals that every worker ought to set for himself 
no matter what occupation he enters upon. Make a list of the 
occupations for which it would be easiest to prepare in your commun¬ 
ity. Pick out the qualities which are most needed in connection 
and decide which of these occupations are suited to you and which 
are not. Remember not to look merely for a soft snap. 

Why do state governments often require special education and 
training for vocations like law, medicine, industry, pharmacy, or 
teaching? What are the requirements for these in your state? 

In how many occupations that you would consider worth while would 
a high school education be of little or no use? A college education? 


Questions 


269 


QUESTIONS 

What is wealth? Why do we want wealth? Distinguish between 
public wealth and private wealth. Mention some beneficial things 
which we enjoy but which we could not have unless some one had laid 
up wealth. 

Explain the three factors used to obtain wealth. Mention the 
different kinds of organization which a community may provide to 
encourage industry. What is a chamber of commerce? A labor union? 
An employment bureau? By what methods do labor unions seek to 
obtain their object? 

In how many different ways does our government encourage 
industry? Explain the work of the Weather Bureau. Define pro- 
tective tariff ; subsidy ; patent) corporation. Mention some of our laws 
to restrain corporations. What do Socialists believe in regard to the 
government’s control over industry? 

Why do we have money? Mention the different kinds of money 
used in the United States. What services do the banks render? 
What is a clearing-house? Explain the Federal Reserve system. 

What classes of people are protected while at work? Why do we 
have special laws in regard to child and women workers? Mention 
the principal features of these laws. 

Mention some of the unpleasant features resulting from the ac¬ 
cumulation of money. Why do workers often show ill-will toward 
their employers? By what means do some workers attempt to get 
the better of their employers? What have some employers done in 
return? How many of these things do you think are justifiable? 
Mention ways by which well-meaning employers try to benefit their 
employees. What is meant by industrial democracy? To what ex¬ 
tent does the government undertake to settle industrial quarrels? 

Why do some people dislike farm life? What difficulties does the 
farmer have to contend with? What advantages does the occupation 
possess? How should the rest of the country feel toward farmers? 

Explain conservation. In connection with what particular natural 
resources is conservation specially important? By what means 
does the government try to protect our mineral resources? Our 
forests? What is meant by irrigation? 

Explain the family budget. What are some safe kinds of savings? 
Why is saving desirable? What are the principal officers in your 
local, state, or national government who have to do with the saving 
of wealth? How do business men influence the prosperity of a 
country? In what ways does the individual citizen affect the course 
of events? 

Why is the study of vocations in school helpful? Does it make any 


270 


Laying Up Wealth 


difference to the community what your occupation is? What con¬ 
siderations must a person take into account in choosing his life work? 
What opportunities for education are available to one who is already 
employed? 


THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Public Property of Our Community. 

Men Whose Wealth has Benefited the Nation. 

Our Chamber of Commerce or Board of Trade. 

The American Federation of Labor. 

A Strike in Which We Were Directly Interested. 

The Patent Office and Its Work. 

Our Mints and What They Do. 

A Visit to a Clearing House. 

Factories Where Children Work. 

Summer and Winter on the Farm. 

Our National Forest Service. 

A Homestead in the West. 

The History of the Imperial Valley. 

Our National Reclamation Projects. 

The Story of the Buffalo. 

The Job I Want to Hold. 

The Jobs I Should Not Care For. 

The Banks of Our Community. 

Building and Loan Associations. 

School Gardens. 

Workers in Prisons. 

Resolved, that it is wrong for a worker to do less than his health 
permits him to do. 

Resolved, that children while attending school should have no 
regular work to do. 

Land in Our Community Which Could be made More Useful. 

My Ideal of a Successful Man or Woman. 

Resolved, that the government should put in prison every person 
in good health who is not regularly employed in any beneficial oc¬ 
cupation. 


CHAPTER IX 


CARING FOR THE UNFORTUNATE 


O thou who art careless of thy fellow*s grief, 

It fits not thou shouldst hear the name of man. — Saadi. 


125. Those Who Need Help. — In every community 
there are some people who not only contribute nothing to 
the progress of the community, but have to be cared for by 
it. These are sometimes spoken of as the dependent, the 
defective, and the delinquent. The dependent include 
the aged, the poor people, the sick, and the children. The 
defective include the physically afflicted, the deaf, the 
dumb, and the blind, and the mentally afflicted, such as the 
insane and the feeble minded. The delinquent are those 
who have gone astray from the right path and have violated 
the laws or established customs of the community. All 
these people must be cared for by the community, so that 
they may not harm themselves or others. 

There was a time in the early ages of society when some 
of the sufferers were put to death or cast out of the com¬ 
munity, as the easiest way to dispose of troublesome citizens. 
But we have become more humane, and try to care for un¬ 
fortunate people, to relieve their sufferings, and to let them 
get as much enjoyment and do as much work as they can. 
We do this by means of various agencies and institutions, 
some of which were established by private charity and 
others by the government. 

126. Why Some People Are Poor. — Some of the de¬ 
pendent classes are not only poor—that is, without sufficient 

871 




272 Caring for the Unfortunate 

wealth to permit them to have an adequate amount of the 
necessities of life, but they are down in the class of paupers— 
those who for some reason require material help from their 
community even to live. 

Now the causes of poverty are many. With the saloon 
out of the way, perhaps the chief cause is sickness, which 
makes people unable to earn a living or to provide for those 
dependent upon them. Accidents, too, either reduce 
people’s wages or cut them off entirely. Natural misfor¬ 
tunes like the San Francisco fire and the Johnstown flood, 
also cause a great deal of poverty for the time being. Old 
age makes others unable to work. Plain laziness is the 
trouble with many. Extravagance and poor management 
account for many others. Bad habits like gambling and 
intemperance have brought disaster to many families. 

Now it is true that '‘the poor we have always with us,” 
but much of the poverty which exists can be alleviated. 
The community will then be far better off, and the public, 
which must bear the burden of the poor, will be in part 
relieved. But the policy which does the most good seeks 
to prevent poverty as well as to remedy it. 

Make a list of the cases of poverty with which you are personally ac¬ 
quainted, giving whatever causes seem to be responsible for each case. 
Refer to them as No. 1, No. 2, etc., without mentioning any names. 

127. How Shall They Be Helped? — Of course, those 
who are in actual need must be helped, but how? The 
relief must be given in a way that will really help the poor 
to get ahead, and not make professional paupers of them, 
as giving at random is apt to do. If they can be changed 
from a burden upon the public into helpful citizens, real 
lasting good has been done both for the poor people and for 
the community. Gifts of foods, clothing, and money 
afford only temporary relief, although, of course, they are 
sometimes very desirable. 

But too many gifts of this kind make people unwilling to 



How Shall They Be Helped 273 

try to work, knowing that they can live on the charity of 
others. Professional beggars have been known to make 
a very good living by playing upon the sympathies of the 
public. Supporting tramps, beggars, and idle people who 
misrepresent their condition in order to obtain money or 
“hand-outs/’ is certainly unwise charity. Relief can be 
given in other ways. Any one whose pride is not so great 
as to hinder him from begging, ought not to object if you 


Courtesy of Junior Red Cross 
MAKING GARMENTS FOR REFUGEES. 

These girls, who belong to the Junior Red Cross are sewing for the 
benefit of European children who were sufferers from the Great War. 

ask him to call upon the institutions which have been 
established for the purpose of relieving suffering. 

When, if ever, would you advise giving money to a beggar? to a 
poor family? 

The terms “indoor relief” and “outdoor relief” are often 
used in connection with public and private charity. When 
a person is helped by taking him to live in a charitable 





274 Caring for the Unfortunate 

institution, he is said to receive indoor relief. When he is 
aided in his own home by money, goods, or otherwise, he is 
getting the “outdoor” variety. 

128. Private Agencies for Relief. — In all our large 
cities we find, under various names, charitable societies for 
the purpose of alleviating poverty. These societies in¬ 
vestigate the conditions of those who apply for help, and 
give aid to those who are worthy. It used to be the case 
that people could live comfortably on help received from 
several charitable societies at the same time, while other 
needy ones perhaps received none at all. 

So in order to prevent duplication of help, which certainly 
encourages poverty and laziness rather than does away with 
it, organizations called the Associated Charities or United 
Charities have been established. Card indexes are kept, 
containing the name of- every person who asks for charity. 
Thus a sort of clearing house is established to which all 
cases can be reported. Any charitable society can find 
out here whether a person has received aid from any other 
source. 

When an individual is asked to give help to somebody, it 
is often best not merely to give money, but to report the 
case to one of the charitable institutions, which will look 
up the situation and give aid if the people are worthy. 
If a person is interested in some special kind of charity, he 
can give money to the society which works in that particular 
field. He will seldom have much trouble in finding some 
organization with which he can connect himself. We need 
not excuse ourselves, however, from helping the needy by 
saying that some society can look after them. 

These charitable societies give medical aid in sickness, 
find work for people, and really give them an opportunity 
to get a new start. Then they follow up the case, making 
regular visits and giving help and encouragement. The 
Salvation Army does a wonderful work in charity as well 
as in strictly religious lines. “A man may be down,” they 


27 5 


Private iVgencies for Relief 

say, “but he is never out.” During the Great War, many 
of its members went abroad, and became very highly 
esteemed by the soldiers. The “boys” will probably 
never forget the Salvation Army’s doughnuts. 

The Red Cross is not primarily a charitable organization, 
in the usual sense of the word, but it does relief work in time 
of calamity such as fires, floods, and earthquakes. During 
the Great War, as in previous conflicts, the Red Cross 



International 

DISTRIBUTING NEW YEAR’S GIFTS. 


Mr. and Mrs. F. J. Shepard are assisting Mrs. Mott and Miss 
Booth of the Salvation Army in presenting gift bags to four thousand 
poor children in New York. 

established hospitals, and sent nurses and doctors abroad. 
Their work in peace times is less dangerous and public, 
but in aiding the uplift of people along all lines its service 
never ceases. 

Besides charitable societies, the social settlements, which 
we have mentioned, are exceedingly beneficial. People 
can go there and receive help from doctors, dentists, and 
teachers, as well as entertainment and recreation. Social 







27 G 


Caring for the Unfortunate 


workers make their homes in these houses. They investi¬ 
gate conditions in the slums, and give all the help they can to 
the needy and the sick. The churches also give much to 
charity, sometimes by making contributions to various 
charitable institutions, sometimes by actually maintaining 
such places through the kindheartedness of their con¬ 
gregations. Sometimes a church will center its interest on 
one orphan asylum, for example, and partially support it. 

During the war there were many “drives” for money to 
use in the support of charitable work by means of relief 
funds. These were largely for the suffering countries of 
Europe. Belgian relief, Armenian relief, “bundle day” and 
the like, followed one another at short intervals. People 
sometimes got tired of being asked for so many contribu¬ 
tions, but very large sums of money were often contributed 
for these worthy causes. And America with all her wealth 
could easily afford to give! We can not begin to realize in 
this country the distress from which many parts of Europe 
and Asia suffered. Perhaps we did not suffer enough for our 
own good! 

Mention some of the private charitable institutions in your com¬ 
munity. What work do they do? Have you ever given anything to 
them or worked with any of them? 

129. Public Agencies for Relief. — Although a great 
many charitable institutions are under private management, 
the government also takes care of many of the poor and 
afflicted. In some New England states, every sizable 
town has its poor farm where those who can not support 
themselves and have no relatives or friends to take care of 
them may go. But outside of New England, this work is 
most often done by the county, though the large cities 
also have their “homes” for their own poor. 

These homes, while they do provide an existence, are at 
best cheerless places for their inmates. Most children are 
taken care of in private institutions, although some are 


Public Agencies for Relief 


277 


taken into the county and city homes. Children’s aid 
societies try to get good homes for the children with private 
citizens, and their efforts have been to a large extent suc¬ 
cessful. 

The various governments also contribute and help to 
maintain other institutions. A State Board of Charities 
or similar body has the power to inspect these places as 
well as those actually carried on by the government. It 
makes certain requirements, and receives regular reports 
from them. The lo¬ 
cal charity officers 
also frequently aid 
with “outdoor” re¬ 
lief to those in need. 

Find out all you can 
about the public chari¬ 
table agencies in your 
community. Do you 
have a town farm, a 
county farm, or are the 
poor “ boarded out ”? 

We must not for¬ 
get that to prevent 
poverty is better 
than to cure it. The 
workmen’s compen¬ 
sation acts prevent a great deal of the poverty which would 
otherwise come from sickness or accident. There are also, in 
several states, mothers’ pension acts, which give a small sum 
weekly to mothers who have no means of support, and must 
care for small children. The amount varies according to the 
number of children and their age. By this means families 
can stay together and get the benefit of home life, which they 
could not get in any institutions. Some European countries 
grant pensions to all poor people beyond a certain age, but 
this policy has never been adopted in the United States. 



BLIND BOYS STUDYING. 

These boys are working an arithmetic prob¬ 
lem. 





278 Caring for the Unfortunate 

We should not overlook the services of insurance com¬ 
panies in the matter of preventing poverty. They are 
carried on by private corporations as money-making ven¬ 
tures, but have been of great aid in times of sickness or ac¬ 
cident. Especially if a person who spends his money easily 
carries insurance, he feels compelled to save at least 
enough for his premiums. Then when accident or sickness 
occurs, if he carries that kind of insurance, he probably 
gets enough to live on if no more. Life insurance has been 
a 4 ‘friend in need” to many a mother or child when the 
father was taken away. Some wealthy people carry large 
policies, counting up even to hundreds of thousands of 
dollars. So valuable is such insurance felt to be that a few 
states have established state insurance systems. 

Do any members of your family carry insurance? What forms? 
What different kinds of life insurance policies are there? 

Unemployment is one of the most important causes of 
poverty. To remedy this, the employment bureaus have 
done a great deal. Sometimes a person needs work only 
a little while when he is out of a regular job for some reason. 
We have already noted the ways in which bureaus are 
carried on by the government, and private employment 
agencies help people to get work. 

130. The Blind and the Deaf. — Until the latter part 
of the eighteenth century, no attempt was made on the part 
of communities to take care of the blind. The first Amer¬ 
ican institution for the blind was established near Boston. 
Now there are over a hundred such institutions through¬ 
out the country, many of which are carried on by the state 
governments, and maintained by taxation. 

These schools have done wonders for the blind. They 
have proved that such people are not useless even though 
they are dependent. They can do something both for 
themselves and their community. 

The institutions for the blind educate their people. Their 


The Blind and the Deaf 


2 79 



books have raised letters which the blind people read by¬ 
passing their finger tips over them. They have also a 
system of writing. They are taught almost as many sub¬ 
jects as other students. In fact, some of them are sent to 
public high schools and even to universities. 

They also receive industrial training which prepares 
them for certain trades. Typewriting, piano-tuning, broom¬ 
making, chair-caning, plain and fancy sewing, knitting, and 


GOOD FUN. 

This kind of recreation is healthful and interesting. Would you 
guess that these boys are blind? 

basketry are taught. Blind people become very proficient, 
and the articles which they make are well formed and hand¬ 
some. Music is also taught in the blind schools. They 
engage in outdoor exercise and athletics. On the grounds 
of some blind institutions we see slides, swings, and see-saws, 
and many are equipped with gymnasiums and even swim¬ 
ming pools. 

There are about fifty schools for the deaf and dumb in 




280 


Caring for the Unfortunate 


this country, and they have at least 7,000 pupils all told. 
There are comparatively few deaf mutes in the country, 
but because we learn to talk by hearing others, deaf people 
usually do not talk, although they are not mute. In the 
deaf and dumb schools, the pupils are taught to talk with 
their hands, though they read and understand regular writ¬ 
ing. They learn to read the lips of speakers. Many of 
them do this so well that they can understand everything 
that is said, even when the speaker does not enunciate 
clearly. These schools have done a great deal for the 
deaf people, enabling them to learn trades and become 
self-supporting citizens. 

Are there any institutions for the blind or deaf in your community? 
Have you ever visited one anywhere? 

131. The Sick and the Crippled. — People who have been 
hurt or are physically deformed are sometimes kept in pri¬ 
vate homes for cripples, and are taught to do certain kinds 
of work which they can do in spite of their handicap. Us¬ 
ually not much can be done for them physically, but they 
are helped and made as comfortable as possible. To soldiers 
who lost one or both eyes, legs, or arms during the war, 
or were otherwise badly injured, our government gave 
pensions which enabled them to study in colleges or trade 
schools. 

There are some people who are dangerously sick and 
need special care and treatment. These are the tubercular 
and the epileptic. In the United States more than 150,000 
people die every year of tuberculosis. It is certainly neces¬ 
sary to do something to deal with the “white plague,” 
as it is sometimes called. 

Once people who had tuberculosis were treated just the 
same as others. They lived in the same houses and used 
the same dishes and towels. This was very bad for the 
people who lived with them. Instead of being kept in the 
air as much of the time as possible, they stayed in close. 


281 


The Sick and the Crippled 

stuffy rooms. As a result, the disease became worse, the 
patients died, and others caught the infection from them. 

But all this has been changed. Now tuberculosis suf¬ 
ferers are to some extent kept apart from normal people 
and from other sick. At least they are not allowed to use 
the same dishes or clothing. There are special hospitals 
for these people, where they live practically in the open air. 
If the cases are treated early enough, they can be cured, 
and at any rate they can be helped a great deal. This 
isolation also protects well people from catching this danger- 



THE MAIN ENTRANCE OF A GREAT HOSPITAL. 


ous disease. Some of these hospitals are maintained by the 
state or the county, but most of them are private institutions. 

The dry air of the far Southwest does much good to such 
sufferers. But unfortunately they often move out there too 
late. The native Westerner does not welcome the “lung¬ 
ers,and their distress, if they have little money, is some¬ 
times pitiable. Anti-spitting laws really mean something 
out there, and are thoroughly enforced. 

In this connection we must speak of the hospitals. Often 
conditions in the home are such that a sick person can not 
possibly be so well cared for there as in a hospital. In the 





282 Caring for the Unfortunate 

private hospitals, inmates must pay for their room and the 
service, and they can have private nurses and their own ( 
doctor. In hospitals which are financially helped by the 
state, there are wards for people who can not afford a 
private room and nurse. A very small sum or nothing at 
all is charged in these wards. 

Many hospitals were founded by church organizations, 
though they may be helped by the state or local govern¬ 
ment. In addition to these, most cities have a hospital 
maintained entirely by the municipality, where people 
may go free of charge for treatment and medical care. 
Sometimes only those who are sick with very contagious 
diseases are sent there. 

Make a list of the hospitals in your community. Are any of them 
maintained by the government? If you were seriously sick, would 
you rather be at home or in a hospital? 

132. The Insane. — People who are mentally afflicted 
also need special care. Insane people are those who have 
once had ordinary mental powers but have lost them 
through some accident or misfortune. These were formerly 
allowed to go free, to exist as best they could on the charity 
of other people and to be laughed at by the thoughtless. 
Or, if they were violent, they were locked up with all sorts 
of criminals. But people have come to realize now that 
these people need to be separated from others and given 
special treatment suited to their misfortune. 

Institutions for the insane are generally called asylums. 
These are usually maintained wholly or partly by the state. 
Many cases of insanity can not be cured, although some suf¬ 
ferers seem to be fully restored to their right minds after a 
time. All patients are given expert care and are made as 
comfortable and happy as possible. Often they take great 
delight in dances and athletic sports. Sometimes patients 
can do some kind of work, either outdoors or indoors. This 
is very good for them besides helping a little toward their 


The Feeble Minded 283 

support. In connection with poor houses, there are often 
insane departments. 

133. The Feeble Minded. — People sometimes do not 
understand the difference between the insane and the 
feeble minded. The insane, as we have learned, have been 
mentally normal, but lose control of their faculties; the 
feeble minded are those whose mental powers never develop 
fully. There are three grades in the class of the feeble 



EPILEPTIC PATIENTS AT WORK. 

These are members of the Craig Colony at Sonyea, New York. 
Their work appears to be of high quality. 


minded: the idiot, whose mentality corresponds to that of 
a child not over two years, the imbecile, whose mind reaches 
the ages of three to seven, and the moron, who may advance 
to the mental age of twelve years. Feeble minded people 
have never been normal and can not be entirely cured. 
There are institutions for these people, some private, and 
some maintained by the states. They can do certain kinds 
of work, and, under proper supervision, can be of a little 
use instead of leading entirely dependent lives. 







284 


Caring for the Unfortunate 


Find out about the institutions in your locality for the insane or 
feeble minded. Who maintains them? What do the patients do? 

134. Those Who Are Unwilling to Work. — We have 
all seen the tramp or “hobo” who, although he may be 
physically able to work, will not do so, but expects the com¬ 
munity to feed him. It is not fair that a person who can 
be of some use to a community, but will not, should be sup¬ 
ported by it, and therefore these people should be dis¬ 
couraged. Many communities have laws forbidding begging, 
but these are not always enforced. In some cities there is a 
municipal stone quarry or brick yard where people who wish 
to be fed must work. In other places, the police just tell 
them to “move on” to the next community. It is hard to 
know what to do with such people, for many of them sim¬ 
ply refuse to work, and, while they are probably dishonest, 
they do not do sufficient law-breaking to warrant locking 
them up on that account. But the practise of feeding 
tramps or giving them money is not a good one. 

How do you account for the existence of tramps? Why do you 
think they live such a life? 

135. How the Responsibility is Distributed. — We 
have seen that these unfortunate people must be cared for, 
in part, by the community, but who shall be responsible 
for looking after them? A few public officials in town, 
city, and country bear most of this responsibility. 


LOCAL STATE 

City 

Mayor Governor 

Department of Chari- State Board of Chari¬ 
ties ties 


County 

Directors of the Poor 
Town or Township 
Directors of the Poor 


NATIONAL 

President 

Veterans’ 

Bureau 


Modify this, as usual, to suit your own state and locality. 

Make out a complete list also of all the charitable institutions, pub- 


How the Responsibility is Distributed 285 

lie or private, with which the people of your locality are likely to have 
anything to do. 

These officers should see that the public institutions are 
properly managed, and that the inmates are well treated 
and given the best care possible. They have the responsi¬ 
bility of handling the money obtained from the people for 



A DORMITORY IN A DAY NURSERY. 

This is at the Morgan Memorial Free Day Nursery in Boston. Chil¬ 
dren are cared for here while their mothers are at work. 


the maintenance of these institutions, and they should see 
that it is used properly. 

Charitable institutions carried on by the state or helped 
by state money are under the oversight of a State Board of 
Charities. In some states these Boards have more power 
than in others. They can inspect the institutions under 
their supervision and see that the rules laid down by 
them are obeyed. They can withhold state money from 








286 Caring for the Unfortunate 

private institutions which do not maintain satisfactory 
standards. 

In caring for the unfortunate, we, as individuals, have 
both an opportunity and a responsibility. We can give 
money to help support orphan asylums, homes for the 
aged, hospitals, the Salvation Army, associations for the 
improvement of the poor, and similar institutions. Some¬ 
times we may become interested in special cases and find a 
family to whom we can render aid which they will particu¬ 
larly appreciate. The friendly word and the smile that 
shows personal good will and interest mean much more to 
a “shut-in” than the best intentioned services of a paid 
social worker, who sometimes can not help showing that 
her aid is paid for by somebody and is given because it is a 
duty. A Christmas treat for the “kiddies” in a so-called 
“Home” can be afforded by the members of classes in a day- 
school or Sunday-school, and in many other ways we may 
have numerous chances to bring joy into the life of unfor¬ 
tunates, in or out of institutions. 

But one thing that we sometimes need to learn is how 
charity and service can be given wisely. Social workers 
are needed who will study the conditions where help may 
be required. Perhaps you would like that kind of work 
yourself. And when there are such workers and charitable 
societies who can give us advice, we ought to seek it before 
being reckless with our charity. 

The American people are really very generous about 
these matters. They submit to tag day upon tag day for 
the benefit of institutions which they never heard of, especi¬ 
ally if pretty girls do the “tagging.” They still have much 
to learn about some of the big problems connected with the 
care of the poor, the sick, and the defective. To help with¬ 
out making people lazy or needlessly dependent, and to give 
just the right kind of care to the afflicted, are undertakings 
much easier to talk about than to perform. 

Suppose a member of your class stays away from school, and when 


Themes and Exercises 


287 


the truant officer hunts her up, he finds that she has no clothes that are 
fit to wear in public. Think out thoroughly all that ought to be done 
in her case. Perhaps there may be several reasons which you could 
imagine for such a situation, and each one might lead to a different 
line of action. Several members of the class might each write a story 
founded on this suggestion, and read the stories to the class. 

What do you think of tag days as means of getting funds for charity? 

QUESTIONS 

What classes of people need to be cared for by the community? 
Distinguish between poor people and paupers. Mention the most 
common causes of poverty. 

What kind of relief is best for the poor? Mention some harmful 
kinds of aid. How do charitable societies work? Name some of 
them. What other agencies also try to help the needy? What is the 
Associated Charities and why is it organized? Distinguish between 
indoor and outdoor relief. 

By what means does the government try to help the poor? What 
are mothers’ pension acts? How do insurance companies help to 
relieve poverty? 

Explain the work of institutions for the blind and deaf. How are 
the insane cared for? How do the insane differ from the feeble 
minded? How should the feeble minded be cared for? How are 
hospitals supported? What is meant by the white plague? How 
should sufferers from it be treated? 

For what are officers of charitable institutions responsible? Ex¬ 
plain the work of a state board of charities. How may private citi¬ 
zens aid in the support of the unfortunate? What does a “social 
worker” do? What can be done with tramps? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Work of Our State Board of Charities. 

How Our County Home is Conducted. 

Making Toys for Needy Children. 

Fresh Air Funds. 

Resolved, that tag days should be abolished. 

The History of the Care of the Poor in Englandc 

Salvation Army. 

Our Local Charitable Societies. 

Visiting Homes and Hospitals. 

Tramps and What To Do With Them. 

The Care of the Insane. 


288 


Caring for the Unfortunate 


Institutions for the Feeble Minded. 

The Social Service Worker. 

A Visit to a Settlement House. 

Life in an Orphan Asylum. 

Nursing the Poor. 

The Work of the Junior Red Cross. 

Homes for the Aged. 

Resolved, that one should never give money to a beggar. 
How a Sufferer from Tuberculosis Should Live. 

Open Air Schools. 



CHAPTER X 


PROMOTING RIGHT LIVING 


He that ruleth his spirit is greater than he that taketh a city. — Solomon . 


136. What Can the Community Do Through Its Govern¬ 
ment? — High moral standards are necessary to nations as 
well as to individuals. Those who do not have them can 
not rank high in the estimation of others. The leaders 
of our United States have always preached high morals and 
right living, and our government has almost always dealt 
with other nations in such a way as to gain their good will. 
This is one reason why our country is one of the greatest 
in the world. 

You scorn individuals or business concerns whose moral 
standard is low, and governments of that kind could not 
hold the respect of their own people or of other nations. 
But how shall we promote this essential element of welfare? 
Does the responsibility rest on the government or on the 
people? After all, a government will not very long be any 
better than its people. To make a government good and a 
nation good we must see to it that as far as possible every 
citizen is what he ought to be, and those who will not of 
their own accord do the right thing are prevented from 
harming others. Nothing is safe unless law and order are 
maintained. If everybody does just as he pleases without 
regard to anybody else, things will seem as if “every man’s 
hand is against his brother’s.” 

In some respects, the government takes a negative atti¬ 
tude in this matter. It tells the people what not to do, and 
289 




290 


Promoting Right Living 

restrains wrong rather than compelling the people to do 
things that are positively right. This is often the only 
way in which it can act, because it is practically impossible 
for it to teach morals directly to the people. Americans 
believe the government should not teach any religion, and 
these two, morals and religion, in the minds of many people 
go hand in hand. But the government sets up standards of 
conduct and makes laws according to these. It punishes 
those who break the laws, and thus discourages wrongdoing. 

Some things, like stealing, circulating lies about people, 
or murder, we should consider wrong, whether there were 
laws against them or not. But some people will do things 
that they know to be wrong unless they fear that they will 
suffer in some way by doing them. This fear the govern¬ 
ment supplies by providing policemen, constables, and such 
officers to be on guard against these wrongdoers, and by 
making offenders pay fines or go to prison when they are 
convicted. The customs of old English courts in dealing 
with many offences came to be rather definitely settled. 
We have inherited these practices and principles under the 
name of the common law . By contrast, the laws which are 
made by legislatures and similar bodies are called statute 
law. 

The government also declares certain practices to be 
subject to punishment because it believes their influence 
to be bad, although nobody may be directly injured by 
them at the time except the people who indulge in them. 
In the list of such things are gambling, drunkenness, the 
smoking of cigarettes by children, and the like. Some peo¬ 
ple need to be protected against themselves. Of course, 
such practices as we have mentioned do often bring dis¬ 
grace, discomfort, or suffering upon others as well as upon 
those who are guilty. 

Since there is less excuse or temptation to do wrong when 
people are comfortable and happy, our governments can 
promote right living by aiding to abolish conditions that 


Churches and Their Teachings 291 



make people unhappy or cause them to suffer. Everything 
that it does to maintain good health and proper living con¬ 
ditions, to provide wholesome pleasure and recreation, to 
make people intelligent, or to aid them in earning a decent 
livelihood, helps to encourage right living. Private organ¬ 
izations of many kinds also help in carrying out this same 
purpose. In fact, the positive force that directly promotes 
right living must be ex¬ 
ercised almost wholly 
by private agencies. 


In what ways can a na¬ 
tion show whether it be¬ 
lieves in doing right? Give 
some examples of distinctly 
right or wrong conduct on 
the part of nations. Make 
a list of ten acts which you 
would consider wrong if 
there were no laws against 
them; five which the law 
forbids but which might be 
right under some condi¬ 
tions; five which are wrong 
but which are not punished 
by law. In each of these 
cases can more be done in 
the line of protection by the 
government or by private 
agencies? 


A COUNTRY VILLAGE CHURCH. 


137. Churches and 
Their Teachings.— Re¬ 
ligion is directly associated with high moral standards, and 
the churches have a wonderful influence on the lives of the 
people. Religion differs from morals in that it connects 
our ideas of right living with our thought of a Power outside 


of ourselves to Whom we owe reverence and obedience. 
There are a large number of religious denominations, not 
to mention the millions of people in many parts of the 
world who accept religious beliefs that we consider heathen. 





292 


Promoting Right Living 


These divisions were caused by differences of opinion in 
regard to the form of worship, the observance of ceremonies, 
the organization and government of the church, or the 
way parts of the Bible should be interpreted. But they 
are all similar in more ways than we sometimes realize, and 
they are all important factors in promoting morality. 

Whether the churches are Christian or Jewish, Protestant 
or Catholic, they try to give the people high standards and 
ideals. No doubt there are more different denominations 
than we need, and sometimes, especially in country districts, 
the community is distinctly better off when its people 
worship in one church instead of dividing into several small 
congregations. Churches teach honesty, honor, and truth, 
fair play and a respect for the other fellow’s rights. In the 
matter of charity, the churches practice as well as preach. 
They help those who have gone wrong and are in need either 
physically or morally, and set them on their feet again. 

Since members of different churches often completely misunderstand 
one another, it may be helpful to find out what particular features of be¬ 
lief or church organization distinguish the various denominations. Look 
in the encyclopedia, or consult persons who are qualified to tell about 
their own churches. There should be no arguments in a public school, 
however, about the correctness of any church’s teachings. The class 
must limit itself to the facts about what each church believes. 

They teach people ideas of a future life and of their rela¬ 
tions to God which may not directly concern their relations 
to other people, but at the same time are not separated from 
moral teachings. There was a time when they did little 
else than this, but most churches of today are very greatly 
interested in helping men and women to live good lives now. 
They study the social needs of their communities and take 
an interest in advancing all kinds of causes that improve 
the conditions under which people live. Some churches 
furnish their people, young and old alike, with almost every 
opportunity for good times socially, and for healthful and 
uplifting recreation. The missionaries, too, whom the 
churches send out to convert people to their faith have done 


Churches and the Government 


293 



a wonderful work in teaching these people, healing their 
diseases, and helping them to live more comfortably and 
happily. 

People sometimes refuse to join a church on the excuse 
that there are hypocrites among its members. Possibly this 
charge is true. But at the same time, a community without 
churches would be a 


place that few would 
care to live in. 

138. Churches and 
the Government.—The 
United States govern¬ 
ment is not related di¬ 
rectly to any church as 
the government is in 
some countries. In 
England, for instance, 
the church correspond¬ 
ing to our Episcopal 
Church is the estab¬ 
lished church, and is 
closely related to the 
government, although 
everybody in England 
is perfectly free to wor¬ 
ship as he pleases. Our 
Constitution says, 

'‘Congress shall make 
no law respecting an a great city church. 

establishment of relig¬ 
ion.” This has always been the policy of our government, 
and the churches in this country are absolutely independent. 

Some state governments do, however, sometimes help 
church work. They may, for example, give money to a 
college or a hospital that was founded by one church, 
though when they do this, they usually require it to render 




294 


Promoting Right Living 

some service to the public in return. Practically every¬ 
where in this country churches are not required to pay 
taxes on the property which they own. 

The American colonies in the early days were sometimes 
as intolerant and narrow-minded as anybody in the mother 
country. Roger Williams at Providence gave the first 
opportunity for complete religious freedom. Now every 
state gives the same opportunity, and his ideas on the entire 
separation of government from the churches are accepted 
throughout the country. 

What objections would there be to setting up a state church here? 
Why do you suppose almost every country has had one at some time? 
Should church property be taxed? 

139. Other Private Agencies for Moral Betterment. — 
In connection with both education and recreation we have 
discussed the work of the Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A., K. of C., 
Y. M. H. A., and other such organizations. These are 
agencies in right living also. In fact, their first aim is to 
promote the moral welfare of men and women, and in 
developing them physically and mentally, they believe they 
are aiding moral improvement as well. They endeavor to 
fit people to lead good, useful lives, to make them realize 
the dignity of work, and to develop in them virtue and high 
moral standards. There is no doubt of their success in this 
undertaking. In offering a good, safe place for recreation, 
they seek to offset the evil influences of undesirable places. 
Many of these organizations give financial as well as moral 
aid to those who need it. 

Do you belong to any of the organizations mentioned above? If so, 
has it done you much good? In what way? 

The scout organizations were established for the purpose 
of promoting higher morals among boys and girls. They 
teach truth, honesty, and courtesy, and are not content 
with mere words, but really carry out the virtues for which 
they stand. They make the work and the play very inter- 


Moral Teaching in the Schools 295 

esting to boys and girls, and through all their activities they 
endeavor to implant high ideals and a true conception of 
right and wrong. 

Can you mention some specific things which the scout organizations 
have done and are doing? Do you think they receive proper credit? 

Social service helps greatly to promote right living. 
Social service is any work done by persons or organizations 
for the good of society. Help given to the poor, for ex¬ 
ample, is social service. Social workers investigate con¬ 
ditions, and try to remove the causes of disease, vice, and 
crime. They give help, often temporary, sometimes lasting, 
to people who need it, and they stir up public sentiment for 
the removal of evil influences and bad conditions. Social 
settlements are exceedingly helpful in furnishing places 
where amusement and diversion can be afforded in sur¬ 
roundings that uplift rather than harm. 

140. Moral Teaching in the Schools. — The schools do 
a great deal to promote right living. Education is neces¬ 
sary if the citizens are to be wise and good and patriotic, 
and the schools provide this education. Schools teach 
honesty, truthfulness, respect and obedience. They de¬ 
velop the character of the pupils and prepare them for life. 
The schools are laying more and more stress on ethics, and 
teach morals as well as history and mathematics. The 
pupils learn to respect law, order, and authority, and these 
are very important in good citizenship. The schools not 
only punish those who do wrong but try to promote right 
and establish high ideals. 

There is a great deal of dispute about the matter of 
religious teaching in the schools. Teaching the beliefs of 
any denomination is out of the question in the public schools 
because all religions are represented in them. In some 
schools, time is set aside for priests and ministers to give 
religious instruction to members of their own churches. 
This, however, tends to emphasize religious differences, and 
divide the pupils into groups and sects. 


296 


Promoting Right Living 



141. Why People Do 
Wrong. — If there are so 
many influences to en¬ 
courage people to do 
right, why do so many 
people do wrong? As 
“Bobby” Bums wrote, 
perhaps from experience, 
“One point must still be 
greatly dark, the moving 
why they do it.” If a 
The policeman is “booking” his pris- ^ act ig contrary to 
■oner at the station. & J 

a person s conscience, we 

call it a sin; if it is harmful to a person’s health or morals, we 
call it a vice; if it breaks a law, we call it a crime. You can 
see that any particular act might not always belong under all 
three heads. But whatever we call it, why do people do it? 
Something is wrong with Americans. It is hard to tell what 
—but our records in regard to the number of crimes com¬ 
mitted are worse than those of other great civilized nations. 
Some causes of crime are very similar to the causes of 


Some people object to the reading of the Bible in schools 
because they say it is sectarian. Others declare that the 
morals and ideals set forth in the Bible are fundamental 
principles of all religious faiths, and do not deal with any 
one sect in particular. Some states provide for the reading 
of a certain number of verses, usually eight or ten, every 

day. These are gener¬ 
ally taken from parts of 
the Bible that are ac¬ 
cepted by all sects. 


What does your school do 
in the matter of religious in¬ 
struction? Mention some of 
the things taught in school 
which promote right living. 









How the Courts Help to Assure Justice 297 

poverty. Perhaps the same cause would reduce one 
person to pauperism and send another to jail. Unemploy¬ 
ment causes many crimes, such as stealing and housebreak¬ 
ing, and crimes from this cause are usually much more num¬ 
erous in winter than in summer. Low wages also cause 
people for the same reason to break the law. 

Environment has a great deal to do with crime. In 
large cities, and especially in the very crowded sections, 
immorality and crime are more common than in the less 
densely populated places. The home environment is an 
important agent in crime. A low standard of home life 
makes criminals of people. Going with bad companions 
makes people do wrong who would otherwise do right. 
The saloon, which was one of the greatest causes of crime, 
has now been done away with, but it would be very un¬ 
fortunate if the people who used to be frequent visitors to 
the saloon should be allowed now to defy our laws in order 
to get liquor or to sell it. 

Weaknesses in government encourage crime. Where 
lawbreaking is not severely punished, crime flourishes. 
Defects in education often cause people to have difficulty 
in finding work, and therefore turn to crime as a means of 
existence. A tendency to commit crime may “run” in a 
family, but sometimes crime is thought to be inherited 
when it is really the result of bad influences in the home. 

Can you think of any cause of crime not mentioned in this section? 
If you know of any people who have been found guilty of crime, can 
you think of any motive which probably induced them to commit it? 

From the report of your county jail or penitentiary, find out the 
causes for which the prisoners were sent there. How many of them 
had been there more than once? 

142. How the Courts Help to Assure Justice Between 
People. — In order to prevent one person from infringing 
on the rights of another, and to assure justice in case this 
does occur, we have our courts. If a person thinks that 
another has violated his rights in any way, he may bring 


298 


Promoting Right Living 


his case before a court called by various names in different 
states, such as the County Court, District Court, or Court 
of Common Pleas. This action is called a civil suit. 

The person who brings such a suit is known as the plain¬ 
tiff, and the person who is sued is called the defendant . Since 
only a few people know the fine points of law that may be 
brought up in the case, or are familiar with the ways of 
court business, each party usually hires an attorney, or 
lawyer, to conduct his case for him. Evidence is brought by 

witnesses on both sides, 
and heard by a judge and 
a jury of twelve people. 
After the case has been 
heard, the jury considers 
and makes a decision in 
favor of one side or the 
other. If the defendant 
loses, he usually must 
pay “damages” to the 
winner, or at least pay 
the costs of the case. 
Sometimes if the jury 
thinks the plaintiff had 
no sufficient reason for 
bringing the suit, it will order him to pay the costs for 
both sides. 

When the case involves only a very small matter, it will 
usually be tried before a justice of the peace, a magistrate 
or alderman, instead of the county court. In some states, 
certain cases, like divorce suits, are turned over to a lawyer 
who is called a “master.” This person will then investigate 
the case, and his report will usually be accepted by the 
court. 

It is by means of the courts that every person is assured 
his rights as a citizen, and protected in person and pro¬ 
perty. The courts attempt to render an unbiased and un- 



DIAGRAM OF A COURT ROOM. 

W is the chair for the witness. S is 
the table for the court stenographer 
and clerk. 














How the Courts Deal with Law Breakers 299 

prejudiced decision in disagreements between people, and 
to give justice to every one. In a real democracy, such 
agencies are necessary. Otherwise it would be a case of 
“might makes right” and the stronger would always take 
advantage of the weaker. With the courts in operation, 
the weaker side, if it is in the right, has the whole force of 
the government put back of it, so that its rights may be 
protected. 

Have you ever attended a trial of a civil suit? If so, describe the 
proceedings to the class. 

Some people will advise you never to “go to law.” Do you think 
this is good advice? 

143. How the Courts Deal with Law Breakers. — Be¬ 
sides administering justice in disagreements between people, 
the courts punish lawbreakers. A policeman or constable 
who sees a person committing a crime or acting suspiciously 
may arrest him. Any one who believes a person has broken 
a law may go before a justice, magistrate, or alderman, 
(the proper title of such an officer depending on the customs 
of the state) and cause a warrant to be issued. The police¬ 
man or constable will then make the arrest. In trivial 
cases, the offender may be tried before the magistrate or 
justice of the peace, and this officer may decide the penalty. 
Neither he nor any other judge can impose any sentence 
he pleases, but the law generally allows him to fix the exact 
penalty within certain limits. 

If the defendant is accused of committing a serious 
offence, the justice or magistrate, will simply give a hearing 
to the accused, and if he thinks there is a chance that the 
person is guilty, will hold him for trial before the county 
or district court which tries criminal cases. Until time 
for the trial the accused may be confined in jail or released 
on bail. If responsible persons will agree to pay a certain 
sum of money to the court if the accused does not show up 
when the trial occurs, he will be allowed to go free till then. 
Persons accused of murder are seldom allowed out on bail. 


300 



Promoting Right Living 


The case must next be laid before a grand jury. This is 
a body of persons numbering in most states twenty-three, 
who hear a summary of the evidence against the defendant. 
If at least twelve of them think he ought to be tried, they 
will bring an indictment or “find a true bill” against him. 

If they think there is no 
chance of his being 
guilty, they will “ignore 
the bill” and the accused 
will be set free. 

When the case comes 
to trial, the district attor¬ 
ney or county attorney 
represents the state, and 
the accused may have 
his own lawyer or one 
provided by the state. 
Often when the defend¬ 
ant is too poor to hire his 
own lawyer, judges have 
been in the habit of let¬ 
ting some young fellow 
just starting out as a 
lawyer get a little prac¬ 
tise by handling such 
cases. In some places a 
public defender is chosen 
as a regular officer of the 
city or county, to look 
after poor people who 
are brought into court, and see that they get a square deal. 
Witnesses bring evidence on both sides. A petit jury of 
twelve persons listens to their testimony, and after the case 
has been heard, the jury makes its decision. 

Most states require the decision to be unanimous. If the 
jury is unable to reach an agreement, the case may be 


TAKING FINGER PRINTS. 

The man shown in this picture was 
not a criminal but he is having his 
finger prints taken to illustrate how it 
is done. It is said that no other means 
•of identifying a person is so sure as the 
finger prints. 





How Criminals Used to Be Treated 301 

dismissed and perhaps brought up again later before a 
different jury. But if the jury finds the accused person 
guilty the judge then decides what the penalty shall be, 
within the limits fixed by law. If its verdict is “not guilty,” 
the accused can not be tried again for the same offense. 
The policy under English and American law is that it is 
better for nine guilty persons to escape punishment than 
for one innocent person to be punished. This system is 
kind, but some might say it is not the most effective in 
preventing crime. 

If you were being tried for committing a crime, would you rather 
have the judge alone or a jury decide whether you were guilty? 

144. Wrong Doers Who Try to Escape. — Criminals 
can not evade the law by leaving the community in which 
they committed the crime. If a criminal goes from one 
state to another, the governor of his state can send a re¬ 
quisition to the governor of the state into which the criminal 
goes, asking him to send the criminal back. The same thing 
may be done with foreign countries, except that then the 
negotiations must be carried on through the State Depart¬ 
ment of the national government. We have treaties with 
almost all the other governments in which each country 
agrees to extend this courtesy to the other. 

Such arrangements as these make it difficult for a law¬ 
breaker to escape punishment. Sooner or later he is likely 
to be found. “Murder will out,” as the saying is—and not 
only murder, but most other crimes of importance. The 
Secret Service of our national government, and the detective 
bureaus of our cities are very well organized and skillful. 
There are also private detective agencies which have been 
helpful in discovering wrong-doers and bringing them to 
justice. 

145. How Criminals Used to Be Treated. — We have 
become much more humane in our treatment of criminals 
than people were formerly. Long ago, criminals were 
subjected to all kinds of torture, and they were burned at 


302 Promoting Right Living 

the stake, drawn and quartered, or beheaded for the most 
trivial offences. Even children were put to death. In 
fact, in some countries people enjoyed watching executions. 
Until comparatively recent years, the pillory was a common 
source of punishment for offenders, and afforded great 
amusement to the people. 

The chief idea was punishment, and punishment long 

meant simply venge¬ 
ance-getting back at 
those who had done 
wrong—“an eye for an 
eye,atooth foratooth.” 
Later the main thought 
was to protect society 
by separating criminals 
from other people. To 
build jails and prisons 
for them seemed the 
easiest way to do this. 

The prisons of olden 
times were indescrib¬ 
able. There were filthy, 
dark, unventilated dun¬ 
geons where all forms 
of vermin and crawling 
things lived, and crim¬ 
inals were often thrown 
in these places to die. 
All kinds and conditions of people were cast together, and 
disease and vice spread rapidly from one to another. The 
prisoners were very cruelly treated. Sometimes they had 
scarcely enough food to keep them alive. People were 
thrown into prison for debt and for political reasons. In our 
own American colonies, as you have probably read, harsh 
punishments were imposed upon ‘ ‘witches. ’ ’ Often a person 
accused of witchcraft was thrown into water. If she 



PRISON CELLS. 

At the State Prison at Windsor, Ver¬ 
mont, the cells are arranged in tiers. 












Modern Ideas About Dealing with Criminals 303 

drowned, she was innocent; if she did not, she was guilty 
and was put to death. So, whichever happened, there was 
little choice. 

Can you give any explanation for this brutality toward people 
suspected of wrong doing? What state of mind would a person be 
likely to possess who had been through a term in an old time prison? 

146. Modern Ideas About Dealing with Criminals.— 
But we do much better now in dealing with criminals. We 
still punish petty offences by imposing a fine or a sentence 
of thirty or sixty days in a jail or workhouse, according to 
the seriousness of the crime. We send people who commit 
greater crimes to a state penitentiary. But the conditions 
in most jails and penitentiaries are good. They are clean, 
well lighted and ventilated, and sufficient food is provided. 
The cells are large enough for a person to stay in them com¬ 
fortably. But the best change of all is in our attitude to¬ 
ward the whole matter. 

The criminals are not treated as utter outcasts, but at¬ 
tempts are made to reform them. We make some distinc¬ 
tion in treating criminals, too. Young offenders are not 
thrown in with hardened toughs; “first offenders” are 
handled differently from life-long law-breakers. We have 
not lost sight entirely of the thought of punishment, but 
reform, if possible, must be considered first. Sentences are 
often shortened on account of good behavior. Indeed, 
when a prison term is imposed, it is often in the form of an 
indeterminate sentence; that is, its length beyond a certain 
number of months or years will depend upon the prisoner’s 
behavior. Many prisoners are set to work, either on 
some public work or something for which they receive 
small wages, so that when they are released they will not 
be absolutely penniless. 

In some cases, especially with first offenders, a system of 
probation is carried on; that is, they are permitted to work, 
and are practically free, but are visited regularly by proba¬ 
tion officers or required to report regularly to some officer. 


304 


Promoting Right Living 


They may remain at large only as long as they behave well. 
This system prevents the bad effects that prisons often 
have on the prisoners, and gives them an opportunity to 
prove that they can do right. Perhaps some folks are more 
sentimental than sensible about people who go to jail. We 
need not waste tears on a willful criminal who is simply 
waiting his next chance to rob somebody, and we may 



THE DINING HALL AT MASSACHUSETTS REFORMATORY PRISON 
FOR WOMEN. 


err in making a prison an attractive place for a loafer. But 
we should encourage every one who wants to become a real 
man or woman again. 

What is meant by the lockstep? Is it an improvement to abolish 
this from the prisons? Does the wearing of striped clothes have any 
effect upon the wearer? Why is it good for the community to try 
to reform wrong-doers? 

Efforts are now made to teach prisoners some trade that 
will be useful to them after their release, and the articles 












Modern Ideas About Dealing with Criminals 305 

they make are sold. Outdoor work, sometimes on roads, 
sometimes on farms, is good for the prisoners and helps 
make the prisons self-supporting. Some prison officials 
have let entire gangs of men go out to work on road building 
and the like, with almost no guards to watch over them, 
and many of them are entirely satisfied with the results 
of the “honor system.” 



Copyright, Underwood <t* Underwood 
A PRISON WORKSHOP. 

This shop at Sing Sing prison gives employment to many of the 
inmates of the institution. 

Making use of “convict labor,” as it is called, meets with 
some difficulties. Labor unions object to having convict- 
made articles put on the market like other goods because 
they say these are sold for a lower figure and hurt the sale 
of goods made by free labor. This in turn, they say, lowers 
the standard of wages. To satisfy this argument, goods 
made by convicts are sometimes used by the asylums, hos¬ 
pitals, and other institutions managed by the state itself. 




306 


Promoting Right Living 

But if a prison makes more brooms, for example, than these 
institutions need, what is to be done with them? A prison 
can not afford to conduct too many kinds of factories. 

Criminals can now find employment after they are re^ 
leased more easily than they could formerly, because 
employers are willing to give them an opportunity to show 
what they can do. Some churches and charitable societies 
make a specialty of helping such people. There is no 
sense in marking a person forever as a “jailbird” merely 
because he went wrong once. 

Can you imagine how a repentant burglar might feel when he was 
released from jail? What would be the best way to help him? 

147. Young Criminals. — Nowhere is the reform in 
handling criminals more evident than in the way we deal 
with young offenders. Once we threw them into jail with 
tramps and toughs, and what they did not know when they 
went in, they did know when they came out. But now we 
have in every well-governed community a juvenile court 
for all law-breakers under eighteen years of age. Here the 
method of procedure is different from that in the regular 
courts. The judge tries to get at the heart of the child and 
discover what is wrong with him. He wants to reform the 
wayward boy or girl and set the offender on the right path. 

If the offence is small, the judge sometimes merely re¬ 
bukes the wrongdoer and lets him out on probation. He 
continues to go to school or to work, and is watched and 
directed by court officers. Sometimes home conditions 
are such that it is next to impossible for anybody to do 
right there. Sometimes bad company outside is responsi¬ 
ble. All that is needed in some cases is a change of sur¬ 
roundings, and the court tries to find families who are willing 
to receive boys or girls and look after them. 

If the offence a young person commits is serious, he is 
sent to a reform school. This should be situated away 
from the large cities. Here the young offenders are given 


Safeguards for Innocent People 


307 



work to do, and taught trades, and efforts are made to give 
them higher morals and prepare them for good citizenship. 
In dealing with young criminals, wise officials try to give 
individual help. They investigate the causes of each per¬ 
son's offence, and make every effort to keep such people 
from taking up a crim¬ 
inal career. Unfortu¬ 
nately, the reform 
schools do not have as 
much influence for good 
as we should like. 


Besides making people 
afraid of being punished if 
they do wrong, what other 
motives might you appeal 
to in order to induce them 
to do right? 


148. Safeguards for 
Innocent People. — 

Sometimes a perfectly 
innocent person falls 
into such circumstances 
that he appears to have 
been guilty of wrong¬ 
doing. Sometimes 
wicked people do and 
say things to try to get 
good people ‘ ‘in wrong. 

Therefore our national 
Constitution and most 
of our state constitutions give certain rights to accused 
people, in order to prevent the punishment of those who 
are innocent. Our national Constitution says, for ex¬ 
ample, that no warrant for arrest may be issued without 
probable cause, and that “no person shall be held to answer 
for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a 


International 

THE CHILDREN’S COURT BUILDING. 
In this building are heard the cases 
which are brought to court in reference 
to the children of New York City. 







308 


Promoting Right Living 


presentment or indictment of a grand jury.” This means 
that before a person is tried for a serious crime, the case 
must be brought before a grand jury, in order to afford this 
additional safeguard against unreasonable interference with 
a person’s liberty. 

No person who has been once acquitted by a jury may be 
tried again for the same offence. Every accused person 
has the right of trial by jury, and of securing witnesses in his 
defence. No one may be deprived of life, liberty, or pro¬ 
perty without due process of law; that is, no public officer 
or private citizen may interfere with another’s possessions 
or freedom unless he has been authorized to do so by some 
lawful authority. 

Accused persons have the right to a speedy and public 
trial. One of the most cherished principles of English law 
is the writ of habeas corpus. This is meant to make cer¬ 
tain that no person may be held in prison without being 
given a trial. The friends of any one who is in prison may 
obtain a writ or order from a judge, demanding a hearing 
of that person’s case. 

A trial must take place in the state and district where 
the crime was committed, unless it can be shown that a fair 
trial could not be secured there, and the accused must be 
informed of the cause of the accusation. “Excessive bail 
shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel 
and unusual punishments inflicted”; but of course the 
courts have to decide what amounts would be “excessive” 
in any particular case, and whether any particular form of 
punishment violates this provision. 

Why do you suppose the Constitution provides all these safeguards 
from the government? Do you think they are right and necessary? 

149. Are There Different Standards of Right? — 
Standards of right living differ among different groups of 
people. Some things which are considered wrong in some 
places are thought to be right in other communities and 
among other people. For instance, some of the religious 


Are There Different Standards of Right? 309 

rites of uncivilized peoples, such as human sacrifice, are 
entirely contrary to our code of morals. 

For this reason, in judging a person’s morals, we must take 
into consideration the moral standards of the group in which 
he lives. Because of this, right can not be estimated alto¬ 
gether by individuals. In ancient times, the moral man 
was the one who did not do that which was forbidden. By 
and by people came to demand more—that one should do 
what seemed positively right, and should choose definitely 
between right and wrong. 

Sometimes we set up different standards as to our atti¬ 
tude and actions toward our own community from those 
which we follow toward outsiders and other communities. 
We are likely to be selfish in this respect. We wink at 
things in our own life or that of our friends or our com¬ 
munity which we criticize harshly in others. It is not 
altogether fair, therefore, to judge every person by the 
same moral code. One person may be a leader and a real 
power for righteousness in a rough frontier community, 
who would be classed as a crude, ignorant “nobody” in a 
cultured New England neighborhood whose people like to 
pretend that most of their ancestors came over in the 
Mayflower. 

What unfairness often results, however, when people 
who already enjoy special privileges assume that they 
are too good to be governed by the same standards of 
conduct which they set up for other people! Too often the 
people who are rich and influential think they should be 
free to do just as they please, and others are willing to bow 
down to them. It sometimes seems as if money can buy 
everything; it certainly has a great influence. 

Even the courts sometimes favor a rich man rather than 
a poor man. The rich man can afford high-priced lawyers 
to take advantage of every legal trick to relieve him of his 
obligations. The rich murderer is called “insane.” The 
poor man goes to jail. Merely to say this makes us realize 


310 


Promoting Right Living 

how unfair it all is. It is one of the things that turn people 
into Bolshevists and anarchists. It is something that we 
must correct just as fast as we can, and in trying to correct 
it we shall have the help of many rich men who are thor¬ 
oughly right-minded and want only a square deal for them¬ 
selves. 

In most cities somebody in authority gives out “police 
cards” to his political friends. People who have them feel 
free to break all the speed laws and traffic rules in existence, 
knowing that they will simply have to show their cards, 
and will not have to pay any penalty. Personal friend¬ 
ships and enmities often enter into “justice.” A judge or 
magistrate will sometimes let his friends go free or go 
through the motions of fining them, and later give their 
money back. This is grossly unfair. It encourages law¬ 
breaking and the evil use of money, and leads to disrespect 
for all authority, good or bad. 

Did you ever see anything done under the name of the law in your 
community which did not seem to be fair? Are poor people always 
fair in judging rich people? 

150. How Should We Act Toward Other People? — 
Most of us are inclined to consider our own rights more than 
those of others. In the eyes of the law all men are, or 
should be, equal, and each person is entitled to the same 
rights. All men, says the Declaration of Independence, 
are entitled to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” 

We may class the rights of the individual under three 
heads: 

(1) Personal security .—That is the right to enjoy life, 
health, and a good reputation. If somebody tells lies 
about us, he is guilty of slander. If he writes or prints 
untruths, he utters a libel. If he does either of these things 
or conducts himself so as to cause us to risk our lives or our 
material welfare, we have a right to compel him to pay us 
whatever can be reckoned as the money cost to us of his 
wrongdoing. And the courts will, if necessary, issue an 


How Should We Act Toward Other People? 311 

injunction commanding him to refrain from such unfair¬ 
ness. We are even allowed to carry weapons if necessary 
to defend ourselves; but the laws of most states require us 
to do so publicly and to get permission for it, usually, if 
we believe we are in danger. 

(2) Personal liberty .—This is the right to act freely, 
to speak, to print or 
write, to travel, to meet 
with others, to ask the 
government to attend 
to our grievances, as 
long as we respect the 
rights of other people. 

In time of war, these 
privileges may have to 
be restrained, for some 
among us might ignor¬ 
antly or intentionally 
threaten the safety of 
the nation by loose or 
incorrect statements or 
by giving information 
to our enemies. But in 
time of peace we may 
have full liberty in this 
respect, if we do not 

circulate falsehoods or A workhouse corridor. 

seek to overthrow our Thfe w j 10 j e row 0 f ce n s can b e locked 
government. or unlocked from one place. 

(3) Private 'pro¬ 
perty—This means the right to buy, use, and sell possessions 
of any kind, if this is done in a lawful way. Not even the 
government may take this from us if we are using it rightly, 
unless it pays us what the property is worth. Of course it 
collects some of our wealth in a public way, as taxes, to 
pay for what it does for us. It may not even ask us to 









312 


Promoting Right Living 


maintain soldiers in our private homes, except that in time 
of war it may pay us for doing so. 

We should respect these rights of other people as we expect 
them to respect our rights—in short, we should put into 
practice the Golden Rule. If every one acted in accordance 
with it, we would have little trouble with our neighbors. 

151. How Should We Act Toward the Government? — 
We have duties toward our government as well as toward 
other people. Some of these we shall say more about 
later. One duty which we have already mentioned is vot¬ 
ing. After officers are elected, it is our duty to respect 
their authority and obey the laws which they pass. It is 
never right to be a mere “kicker.” If a person thinks 
something is wrong and should be corrected, he can urge 
that it be changed when the proper time arrives; but mean¬ 
time he must be obedient. 

Every individual should show his loyalty toward the 
government by supporting it willingly. Once, when kings 
and their officers were selfish tyrants, it seemed necessary 
to limit their conduct by various laws so that they might 
not take away the people’s liberty. Some of these old 
restrictions have come down to us to-day. Perhaps it is 
just as well that some of them do survive, for it does not 
always follow that a person is going to be fair and just sim¬ 
ply because he was elected by the people. Indeed, the fact 
that a majority of the people voted for him might make 
him think he could treat as he pleased those who had sup¬ 
ported another candidate. But we do not need to worry 
much about such a danger. Most of us will not get in 
trouble with our government if we obey the laws as far as 
we know them and treat others as we would ourselves. 

What can you do for your government now, before you obtain the 
full rights of a citizen? Is there any excuse for the “moonshiner’s” 
disregard of the law? 

152. A Survey of Our Judicial System.—We know 
that the purpose of the courts is to give justice to all people, 


313 


Our Judicial System 

and to protect the rights of both the individual and the 
government. But how is this important work done? Let 
us be sure to understand that it is divided among the 
national, state, and local governments, and that each 
operates in its own particular field. 

The chief judicial officer in most local governments is 



STATE PRISON, WINDSOR, VERMONT. 

Many prisoners are employed outside during the day, returning to 
their cells at night. Across the street from this building are some of 
the finest residences in Windsor. 

the justice of the peace. He performs marriages and other 
legal ceremonies. He may give a hearing when a person 
is accused of crime, and conduct trials which do not involve 
matters of great importance. In some places he is called 
the “squire,” and is elected term after term by the people. 
The chief burgess in a Pennsylvania borough is both the 
chief executive and the chief judicial officer, and he con- 




314 


Promoting Right Living 


ducts cases involving the breaking of borough ordinances. 
In the cities, the police magistrates give hearings in offences 
against state laws, and punish those who break city ordin¬ 
ances. Some cities also have aldermen or magistrates whose 
duties are much like those of a justice of the peace. 

The county plays a very important part in the judicial 
system of most states. Almost every county has its court, 
which tries both civil and criminal cases. In Pennsylvania 
civil cases are tried under the name of the Court of Common 
Pleas, and criminal cases under that of the court of Quarter 
Sessions, or the Court of Oyer and Terminer. In some 
states these courts are called District Courts. These have 
mostly original jurisdiction—that is, they try cases which 
have not been heard in any other court. 

The courthouse and jail are usually situated at some 
central part of the county, which is called the county seat. 
The sheriff makes arrests and keeps order in the county. 
Every county court has its judges, whose number varies in 
different states and different counties. These judges con¬ 
duct trials and impose sentences when people are con¬ 
victed of lawbreaking. 

Although the county or district courts are in some respects 
the most important subdivisions in the state judicial spstem, 
there are higher state courts. These pass under various 
names. In Pennsylvania they are called the Superior and 
the Supreme Courts. In New York the Supreme Court is 
organized in different divisions, each covering a certain 
part of the state, and there is one Court of Appeals, which 
is the highest court in the state. 

These have usually appellate jurisdiction—that is, if a 
person is not satisfied with the way a case has been tried 
in a county court he may appeal his case to one of these 
higher courts. Sometimes these courts, as the Supreme 
Court in New York, hear many original cases also. Of 
course, they do not, in handling appeals, necessarily change 
the verdict or order a new trial, but they may do so if 


Our Judicial System 315 

they find a serious flaw in the way the case has been 
handled. 

The Supreme Court (in New York, the Court of Appeals) 
has the final word in deciding what shall be done in very 
important cases. If any claim is made that a law is con¬ 
trary to the constitution of the state or of the United 
States, this court may decide upon it. We must have these 
courts to give even criminals fair and just trials, and to offer 
every citizen the chance to get justice at the hands of his 
fellows. If a mistake is made by the lower courts, the 
opportunity still remains to appeal to higher authority. 

One fact people often do not understand. There is a 
distinct division of authority between the courts of the 
state and those of the nation. The state courts deal with 
all those who break the state laws. As most crimes, even 
murder, are violations of state laws, most of such cases are 
tried by the state courts. So, lawsuits between citizens of 
the same state, though they involve millions of dollars, 
belong in the courts of that state. 

But there are certain cases which do not come under 
state jurisdiction, and these are tried by federal courts. 
These cases may be divided into three groups; 

(1) All cases involving laws of Congress or the national 
Constitution. 

(2) Cases arising between states, or between citizens of 
different states or between states and foreign countries. 
These might not receive an unprejudiced hearing in a state 
court. 

(3) All cases which do not concern particular states, 
such as those relating to ambassadors and foreign ministers, 
and to crimes committed on the seas, or to treaties made 
by the national government with a foreign government. 

These are the only kinds of cases that may be tried in the 
federal courts. They have absolutely nothing to do with 
state laws and crimes committed against those laws. 
Neither can any cases arising under the laws of a state be 


316 


Promoting Right Living 

appealed to the national courts, unless the claim is made 
that the state law is contrary to the national Constitution 
or laws. Such cases sometimes occur, however. 

Our national court system has three grades: District 
Courts, Circuit Courts of Appeals, and a Supreme Court. 
In every state there is a federal District Court, and in the 
large states two or three, and even four in New York and 



Copyright by tiams & Ewing. 


THE MOST POWERFUL COURT IN THE WORLD. 

The Supreme Court of the United States is composed of men of dig¬ 
nity and ability and its decisions command respect from the entire 
nation. 

Texas. There is at least one judge in every district. 
These courts have original jurisdiction only, in all cases 
affecting federal laws. Each district has a United States 
marshal, who makes arrests, and United States Commis¬ 
sioners who give hearings. A United States district at¬ 
torney represents the government in trials, and cases are 
tried by jury, the procedure being much the same as in the 
county courts. Lawsuits between citizens of different 






Our Judicial System 


317 


states may also come before the District Courts. But to 
prevent the bringing of too many such cases there, a law 
of Congress requires that all such suits which do not involve 
more than $3000 shall be tried in a state court rather than 
a federal court. 

Higher than the District Courts are the Circuit Courts 
of Appeals. The country is divided into nine circuits, each 
comprising several states, and having from two to five 
judges. The Circuit Courts are held at different places 
in the circuit. They have appellate jurisdiction only, and 
hear appeals without a jury and without witnesses, the 
lawyers for each side presenting the case. The decision of 
these courts is in most cases final, unless there is a question 
of constitutionality, when the case may be appealed to the 
Supreme Court. 

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United 
States. It is composed of a chief justice and eight associate 
justices, appointed by the President “during good be¬ 
havior,” which usually means for life—and so are all other 
federal judges. It meets in Washington, and tries cases 
which are appealed from the lower courts. It has original 
jurisdiction only in cases concerning foreign representa¬ 
tives, or disputes between states. Its members are both 
judge and jury. The decision of the Supreme Court is 
absolutely final. 

It also interprets laws and the Constitution, and deter¬ 
mines whether or not laws that are passed are unconstitu¬ 
tional. If this court says a law is unconstitutional, then no 
officer may enforce it, no matter how strongly he may 
believe in it himself. Understand, of course, that the 
court may not set aside a law just because the judges do not 
like it. Unless in their opinion it conflicts with the Con¬ 
stitution, they must let it stand. It is very desirable that 
the Supreme Court should work in harmony with the execu¬ 
tive and legislative departments, because its decisions must 
be carried out by some one. 


318 


Promoting Right Living 

In addition to these courts there are several special courts, 
established to deal with special cases. The Court of 
Claims hears cases of claims for money against the United 
States. It has five judges who meet at Washington. If the 
claimant wins the cases, the court asks Congress for an 
appropriation to meet the demand. The Court of Customs 
Appeals deals with cases concerning the tariff laws. It is also 



PENNSYLVANIA STATE CONSTABULARY ON DUTY. 

These men have gained a high reputation for efficiency by the way 
they have handled the many troublesome cases with which they have 
been called upon to deal. 

composed of five judges. All territories have their courts, 
and the District of Columbia also has its special courts. 

Do you think any improvements might be made in our judicial 
organization? Do the courts carry out the American ideas of justice? 
Do you think it is desirable to have the federal judges appointed for 
life? Why? 

153. Executive Officers Who Aid the Courts.—The 
decisions of the courts would be of little value unless they 




Executive Officers Who Aid the Courts 319 


were carried out. In our governments we therefore have 
various executive officials who help the judicial officers. 
Those who make arrests are the police in cities, constables 
in townships, villages, and boroughs, and sheriffs in coun¬ 
ties. Many of these officers are aided by several deputies. 
The district attorney of the county finds evidence against 
a criminal and conducts the case against him. 

In the states, the attorney-general is the legal advisor of 
all the state officials, and also represents the state in legal 
cases. The governor is the chief executive and he, of 
course, can aid the courts and see that their decisions are 
carried out. The “state constabulary,” a special state 
police force maintained in several states, may be sent by 
the governor to any place within the state to help in any 
difficuty, such as a strike or a riot. The governor may even 
call out the state militia or National Guard to keep order 
and force obedience to the law. 

Sometimes a criminal’s friends, or perhaps even his jailer, 
may feel that he has repented for his wrong doing and has 
been punished enough. Then they ask for a pardon for him. 
In some states the whole responsibility for granting pardons 
rests upon the governor. Other states, such as Pennsyl¬ 
vania, have a Board of Pardons, which recommends to the 
governor the granting or refusing of a pardon. Such a 
board is usually composed of three or four men, generally 
public officials, and the governor is usually very glad to 
have this responsibility taken from him and distributed 
among several people. 

In the national government is the Department of Justice, 
with the Attorney-General at its head. He gives legal 
advice to the President and other officers. Some member 
of the Department of Justice is connected with every 
trial of cases involving federal laws. We have already 
mentioned the United States district attorneys, marshals, 
and commissioners. There is one in connection with 
every federal district court. The President executes the 


320 


Promoting Eight Living 


laws and carries out the decisions and verdicts of the judi¬ 
cial officers, and may grant pardons to those who have been 
convicted of breaking a national law. 


We may now put together in a table the titles of officials whose ser¬ 
vices help to promote right living. 


LOCAL 

Constable 

Justice of the Peace 


STATE 

Governor 

Attorney-General 


Burgess 

Mayor 

Department of Public 
Safety 

Bureau of Police 
Bureau of Detectives 


State Constabulary 
National Guard 
Courts 


NATIONAL 

President 

Department of Trea¬ 
sury 

Secret Service 
Department of Justice 
Attorney-General 
Courts 

District 

District Attorney 
Marshal 
Commissioners 
Judges 
Circuit 
Judges 
Supreme 
Justices 


Magistrates 
Aldermen 
Sheriff 

District Attorney 
County or District 
Courts 

Many other bureaus or branches of local, state, or national govern¬ 
ments, such as those dealing with education, health, labor, and the 
like, publish and circulate pamphlets and bulletins that urge people 
to live better in some way or other. 

Make over this table so as to fit your own locality. 


154. Your Responsibility and Mine. — Even with all 
this machinery for making people do right and punishing 
them if they do wrong, the individual citizen can do as 
much to promote right living as any of the other elements 
which we have discussed. Our first responsibility is to 
understand the laws. We should try to be thoroughly 
familiar with the rules of our school, and the laws of our 
local, state, and national government. It is no excuse 
to say that we do not know the law, and break it out of ig¬ 
norance. A judge will usually be lenient once with a person 


Your Responsibility and Mine 


321 



who has unknowingly broken a law, but the legal principle 
still stands, “Ignorance of the law excuses no one.” At 
the very least, knowing and obeying the law will save us 
from getting into trouble and inconvenience. 

After we know the laws, we must obey them. We learn 
obedience everywhere, in the home, the school, and every 
phase of life. Obedience is al¬ 
ways necessary. It is one of the 
best things that school teaches 
us. Laws are not made to re¬ 
strict, but to guide our actions 
in the right path. We should 
obey them, knowing that we are 
merely doing our part to make 
our communities what they 
should be, and are not bowing 
down to laws made simply to 
limit our freedom. And we 
must not forget our own con¬ 
sciences. We usually have little 
trouble to know what is right 
and what is wrong, and we 
should carry out our convic¬ 
tions in our lives. 

The third step is cooperation. 

In every chapter, we have 
spoken of this as the very foun¬ 
dation of success. That is true 
in regard to right living also. 

Religious organizations do their work through the co¬ 
operation of all their members. Charitable and social ser¬ 
vice is accomplished by means of working together, and 
public opinion, which is such a wonderful factor in making 
improvements along all lines, is simply the combined prin¬ 
ciples and views of all. There is more of this spirit of coop¬ 
eration than there used to be, but we need still more of it. 


A BOY SCOUT ON DUTY. 
This scout’s job is not spe¬ 
cially easy but be seems glad 
to do it. 






322 


Promoting Right Living 


To all agencies for promoting right living we can give 
our sympathy and support. The churches, the schools, 
the Y. M. C. A. and similar organizations, all need our 
help. Even in arresting law-breakers and helping public 
officers to do their duty, we may sometimes be called 
upon for aid. Any policeman or sheriff has the right, if 
necessary, to call for the assistance of citizens in catching 
law-breakers and keeping the peace. We should always 
willingly serve on jury when we are called, and strive to 
form an honest and intelligent opinion on any cases that 
come before us. We can help released criminals to obtain 
honest work. And we can help to improve conditions in 
the community or state so that fewer people will be tempted 
to go astray. Sometimes the fault does not all rest on 
the criminal. 

If every person would feel his responsibility to do these 
four things, our country would surely be a pleasant place 
to live in! 

What would you say if some one told you that a certain person was 
a thief? Would you ask any questions? If you knew that a personal 
friend was a law-breaker, would you have any duty in the matter? - 
Should a person be looked upon as a “tell-tale” if he informs public 
officers of violation of the law? 

QUESTIONS 

Why should the government aid in maintaining high moral stand¬ 
ards? To what extent in general can it do this? Distinguish between 
common law and statute law. 

What is the difference between morals and religion? Why do we 
have different religious denominations? What things in common da 
all religious denominations try to do? What is the relation between 
the government and churches in this country? How does this differ 
from that which prevailed formerly? 

Mention organizations not a part of the churches which help people 
to live better. How far can the schools promote right living? What 
differences of opinion exist about teaching religion in the schools?* 

Distinguish between sin, vice, and crime. Mention the principal 
causes of crime. 

Why do we have courts? Distinguish between civil cases and 


Questions 


323 


criminal cases. Define: plaintiff, defendant, attorney, arrest, warrant , 
hearing, bail, grand jury, damages. Trace the steps in conducting 
a civil suit. Trace the steps in the trial of a criminal case. What are 
our legal customs in regard to the petty jury? What is done in case 
a person accused of crime tries to avoid trial by running away? 

What was the old attitude in regard to dealing with criminals? 
Compare prisons in the old days and today. Define indeterminate 
sentence, probation, convict labor. What should be done for a crim- 
minal after he is released? What is done with young offenders? 
Do they need different treatment from others? 

What provisions are put in our constitutions to protect an innocent 
person from punishment? Define habeas corpus. Is it right that 
people in different social classes should be treated differently when 
they go wrong? What are some practices that public officers should 
avoid in order to be just? 

What three different classes of rights does each individual possess? 
Give some special examples under each of the classes of rights. Do 
we have rights that our neighbors do not? Do we have rights against 
our government? What in general are our duties toward our govern¬ 
ment? 

What is a justice of the peace? What other local officers have 
judicial power? Under what names are county courts conducted? 
What are our state courts called? What is the relation between 
state courts and national courts? Distinguish between original and 
appellate jurisdiction. 

What kinds of cases are always tried in federal courts? Why? 
Name the three grades of the regular federal courts. How are the 
district courts organized and what do they do? Explain the work of 
the circuit courts of appeals. Describe the Supreme Court of ths 
United States. What is the relation between the Supreme Court 
and the laws of the nation? What are the special federal courts? 

What officers may arrest people? What officers assist the courts 
in making and carrying out their decision? What are the duties of 
the attorney-general? How may a criminal be pardoned? 

What is our duty in regard to knowledge of the law? When we 
know the laws what should be our attitude toward them? How can 
we assist in law enforcement? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

How a Trial is Conducted. (Some of the class may visit a trial, 
and then plan a mock trial in which the class may take part. If you 
do this, be careful not to ask the witnesses to “tell the truth and 
nothing but the truth” unless they are really going to do so.) 


324 


Promoting Right Living 


A Visit to a County Workhouse or Jail. 

A Modern Prison. 

Judge Ben B. Lindsay. 

Thomas M. Osborne. 

The Supreme Court of the United States. 

The Highest Court of Our State. 

The Judges of Our County Court. 

My Experiences After Getting out of Prison. (Imaginary.) 

What My Church Believes in. (This subject should not be taken 
up if it is likely to lead to unpleasant discussion. But if the proper 
spirit is in the class it will be very enlightening if each member writes 
on this topic and the best papers are read by the teacher.) 

Resolved, that a system of religious teaching should be introduced 
in the public schools. 

The Work of the Boy Scouts. 

Scout Organizations for Girls. 

Resolved, that the best way to remove crime is to make everybody 
happy. 

Resolved, that the State should see to it that both parties at law 
should have legal advice. 

Resolved, that no one should be punished for breaking a law that he 
did not know about. 

An Experience As a Juror. 

The History and Ideals of Roger Williams. 

Resolved, that everybody should try to settle his differences with 
other people outside of court. 


HOW OUR PEOPLE GOVERN THEMSELVES 

CHAPTER XI 

SOME AMERICAN IDEAS ABOUT GOVERNMENT 


We will never bring disgrace to this, our city, by any act of dishonesty 
or cowardice, nor ever desert our companions. We will fight for the ideals 
and sacred things of the city laws and do our best to incite a like respect 
and reverence in others. We will strive unceasingly to quicken the pub¬ 
lic’s sense of civic duty, that thus in all these ways we may transmit this 
city greater, better, and more beautiful than it was transmitted to us. 

—Oath of the Athenian Youths. 


155. Majority Rule.—We have been thinking up to 
this time mainly of the things which our governments 
have to do or wish to do. In doing this, we have often 
been obliged to speak of the officials who actually conduct 
the government’s work in promoting the various Elements 
of Welfare. Now we want to get a general view, so to 
speak, of the government in action, and find out what the 
machinery is made of. But first of all, perhaps, we should 
notice a few of the principles which are at the bottom of our 
American ideas of the way a government ought to be con¬ 
ducted. 

Americans are very proud of their country. We boast 
of this great democracy, of government by the people. 
One of the great principles of American government is 
that of majority rule—that is, the carrying out of the will 
of the greater part of the people. The nominee at an 
election who gets the majority of votes is considered the 
people’s choice. 


325 




326 Some American Ideas About Government 

By the way, we must be careful not to confuse the 
words majority and plurality. A majority is more than 
half of all the people concerned or of all the votes cast— 
the difference between the highest vote and all others put 
together; a plurality is the difference between the highest 
vote and the next highest, or some other comparison 
which concerns only two numbers. In the election of most 
officers, only a plurality is needed; in a few cases, as in 
counting the electoral votes for President (§201) there must 
be a majority. 

We believe in majority rule in this country because we 
assume that all the people are politically equal, and that 
the wish of the greater part of them should guide the policy 
of the government. In your activities in school or in any 
other place, you apply the principle of majority rule. 
Suppose you are choosing a captain for a team, or officers 
in a club or society. Those whom the greater number 
of the people wish are elected to office. Very often, perhaps, 
your class or club may require only a plurality instead of a 
majority in making elections. But in any case you follow 
the wishes of the largest number who express their opinion, 
for this is the way to bring the greatest satisfaction all 
around. 

It is only reasonable to expect that more people will wish 
to do right than wrong, and, that on great public questions, 
a majority of the people will try to take the right stand 
rather than the wrong one. Therefore, by carrying out 
the wishes of the majority, the government usually does 
what is right, or at least what suits the greater number. 
Even to do a good thing is very difficult if more people 
are against it than for it. Sometimes it may be necessary 
for people to learn by sad experience that they are on the 
wrong track. After trying the wrong, they may be more 
willing to do the better thing. But we must prevent such 
waste of time and energy and money whenever we can. 

In studying history and politics you will find cases when 


Majority Rule 


327 


a minority has gained control of a government. Very 
often, even in our own country, we have been governed 
by the wishes of a plurality rather than of a majority. 
This sometimes can not be helped. Our system of electing 
a President, for example (§201), more often than not puts 
a man into the office who has not been the first choice 
of a majority of all the people, and sometimes favors a 
man who has not had even a plurality in the popular 
vote. 

In some countries we have found the government run 
by the aristocrats, who are always in the minority. This, 
of course, is not doing justice to the masses of common 
people, whom, as Abraham Lincoln said, God must have 
loved because he made so many of them. On the other 
hand, we have seen in Russia an example of a government 
carried on in the name of the manual laborers, but really 
managed by a very small group of men. It is no more fair 
for the so-called “upper” classes to have nothing to say 
about government than it is for the “lower” classes to be 
denied a voice. Every person should have some part in 
the government of his country. 

Make a list of instances in your own experience in school, church, 
club, or elsewhere, in which the will of the majority was carried out. 
Make another list of cases in which the wish of a plurality was sufficient. 

But how does a certain element gain authority and power? 
A government must have authority, or it might as well 
quit. It sometimes obtains this by war and violence, 
as in cases where a government is overthrown and another 
one set up. We have an example of this also in Russia. 
Sometimes this may be necessary. Our own country 
gained its independence in this manner. There seemed 
to be no other way of convincing stubborn old George III 
and his corrupt Parliament. Among primitive people 
only the strong man counted, and only fighting power could 
win respect. 


328 Some American Ideas About Government 


But are strife and bloodshed necessary to gain authority? 
What does war prove, anyway? Nothing whatever except 
which side is stronger. Of course a person may fight more 
determinedly if his conscience tells him he is right, but 
there are too many examples to the contrary to let us 
believe that the right will win merely because it is the right. 
There are surely other means of settling arguments and 
obtaining power than by physical force. 



Courtesy Bureau of Construction and Repair 
ON A UNITED STATES TORPEDO BOAT. 

Torpedo tubes extend over each side of the boat. 

The transfer of power from one political party to another 
in the United States shows that this can be done by means 
of the ballot. By their vote, the people may show what 
they think and believe, and what officers they want in 
power. In fact, much more can be accomplished by this 
peaceful, reasonable means than by violence and strife. 
We do not always use good judgment in voting. But if the 
people who are on the right side can not get a majority 






329 


The Rights of the Minority 

of votes in an election, they would probably lose if they 
would try to settle things by a fight. And think how many 
lives and how much money and property would be lost 
that way! Only when some very great principle of honor 
is at stake, or in defence of life itself, have we any right 
to resort to war. 

But when a majority of the people have elected their 
officers and gained authority in the government, what 
shall they do to make it a success? Too often when people 
get into power they govern with no thought or consider¬ 
ation for the interests of others or of the community as a 
whole, but provide simply for their own selfish interests. 
They put their friends in office, often without considering 
their qualifications. This practice is commonly called 
the “spoils system.’' They frequently run things in a 
high-handed manner, thinking only of getting all they can 
out of the situation. 

This idea is all wrong. The victors in an election are 
given an opportunity to serve, not to grab. They have a 
responsibility and an obligation to protect the interests of 
all the people, and to promote the welfare of the whole 
town or city or state or nation. This thought we are not 
likely to emphasize too often. 

Do you think the practice of putting members of other political 
parties out of office and appointing those who belong to the party in 
power is a good one? Why? 

156. The Rights of the Minority. —Even though our 
government is controlled by the majority of the people, 
the minority has some rights, and has a real place in poli¬ 
tical life. The opposition of the minority serves to check 
those in power, and keep them from acting like tyrants. 
A minority is not necessarily in the wrong, and its views 
should receive some consideration. There are usually 
some members of the minority party in the law-making 
bodies of our government, and through them, great ques- 


330 Some American Ideas About Government 

tions and measures are debated, and thus brought before 
the country. 

One of the important rights which our national and state 
constitutions guarantee to the minority is that of free 
speech. The national Constitution says, “Congress shall 
make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech 

or of the press.” This does not mean that people may slan¬ 
der the government, or other people at will, but that they 
have a right to express their opinions and advocate their 
principles on various subjects. The free press also gives 
them the opportunity to do this. The trouble is that many 
people mistake liberty for license to do wrong, and abuse 
their rights in such a way as sometimes to cause decent 
citizens in disgust to wish they could limit the wild talk 
of reckless faultfinders. But to keep liberty safe for good 
citizens we have to put up with occasional abuses of it by 
others. 

Under what conditions do you think the government has a right to 
restrain free speech? Has a person the right to say things about 
public officers which he would not say about the same people in private 
life? Does the Golden Rule apply in such cases ? 

157. Government by Representatives.—When our 
Puritan forefathers came to this country and settled in 
New England, they formed towns, which were the centers 
of their political life. They made their laws at a “town 
meeting,” at which every voter took a direct part in 
legislation. New England towns still have the town 
meeting. But you can see that it would be a physical 
impossibility for 50,000,000 voters to take an actual part 
in making the laws. So, in order to give the people a voice 
in the government and still have governmental organiza¬ 
tions small enough to be handled properly, we have repre¬ 
sentative government. That is,.the people act through 
officers whom they elect. 

Representative government is one of the most cherished 
principles of English government. It is perhaps England’s 


Government by Representatives 331 

greatest political gift to the world. When our American 
forefathers said, “Taxation without representation is 
tyranny,” they declared that they were simply standing 
up for their rights as Englishmen. The idea of representa¬ 
tive government is not new. It goes back to the early 
days of English history. 

In the last century England has carried representative 
government, some would say, even further than it has gone 
in our own country. The House of Lords, whose members 



WHERE THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT MEETS. 

These famous buildings in London have been the scene of many 
famous events in history. 


inherited their titles or were given them in the name of the 
king, has lost virtually all real power in the government. 
The king always signs any bill which is passed by Parlia¬ 
ment, so that in reality the House of Commons, whose 
members are chosen by direct vote of the people, has poli¬ 
tical power almost entirely in its own hands. 

In our own country, the first meeting of representatives 
of the people was that of the Virginia House of Burgesses 
in 1619. Almost every other English colony had such a. 
representative body from the beginning of its existence. 






332 Some American Ideas About Government 

When the Revolution threatened, a Continental Congress 
came together to look after the common interest of the 
colonies; and when war broke out, the second Congress 
assembled, and after a little over a year declared inde¬ 
pendence in the name of the United States of America. 
This Congress was the forerunner of the Congress called 
for by the Articles of Confederation, and this in turn gave 
way to the government under our present constitution. 

In all representative governments political parties be¬ 
come very important as agents of the people. People with 
the same political ideas and principles tend to band together 
and make organized efforts to put their candidates into 
office. These persons are then supposed to uphold and 
carry out the principles of their party during their term 
of office. As we shall see later (§204), political parties 
sometimes produce unfortunate results, but we have not 
yet found a way to get along without them. 

158. The Federal Idea. —Another fact about our 
government we should be sure to understand—it is or¬ 
ganized on the federal principle. A federal government 
is a form of government in which there is a union of several 
parts, with power divided between the central government 
and the smaller political units. Canada and Australia 
are examples of this as well as the United States. In 
Australia and the United States, the subordinate parts 
are called states; in Canada they are called provinces. 
If the power of the central government is strong, and the 
states give up supreme power or sovereignty to it, the 
government is called a federation) if the power of the central 
government is relatively weak, and the states retain sover¬ 
eignty in their own hands, it is called a confederation. The 
form of government in the United States is & federal republic. 

Why do we have this federal form rather than some other? 
It was the result of both history and necessity. The 
thirteen original states once existed as separate colonies. 


The Federal Idea 


333 


each with its own distinct government. Of course they 
were all weak, and, taken separately, could do little either 
to defend their rights or to promote the welfare of all. 
They were jealous of each other and had many disputes 
among themselves. The coming of the Revolution com¬ 
pelled them to act together. 

At length, in 1781, the states combined forces under the 
Articles of Confederation. But these “Articles” were 
very weak, and gave practically no real power to the central 
government. The states were afraid they would lose their 
identity and sovereignty, and they wanted to rule them¬ 
selves. But several far-sighted men realized that the 
states could not make successful headway under the 
Articles of Confederation. 

In 1787 a convention met in Philadelphia and drew up 
our present national Constitution. This is a very wonder¬ 
ful document. It contains the plan of the government, 
gives certain powers to the national and to the state govern¬ 
ments, and in its first ten amendments sets forth the rights 
and privileges of the people. 

There was a great deal of opposition to the Constitution. 
Many people honestly believed that it established a tyranny 
over the states, and took away their natural rights. But 
it was finally ratified by the states, and it has proved 
to be a foundation for a great government. In all these 
years only nineteen amendments have been made; ten of 
these were a sort of bill of rights passed shortly after the 
ratification of the Constitution. The Constitution is not 
perfect but every American can be proud of it. 

The powers which the Constitution gives to the national 
government are set forth chiefly in Article I, Section 8. 
They may be divided into four groups: 

(1) The control of all relations with foreign countries. 

(2) The control of war. 

(3) All matters concerning foreign commerce and com¬ 
merce between the states. 


334 Some American Ideas About Government 

(4) All matters concerning the territories and other 
property that belongs to the nation as a whole, as distinct 
from that which belongs to states or individuals. 

These are matters in which the states have no authority. 
But they have a great many powers left in their hands by 
the Constitution. Some of these are education, care of 
health, regulation of local government, care of the unfor 
tunate, construction and upkeep of highways, protection 
of life and property—in fact, the elements of welfare 
which we have discussed are carried on for the greater 
part by the state governments. 

159. Making New States. —We started with thirteen 
states. Now we have forty-eight. Congress has entire 
authority in the matter of admitting new states to the 
union, except when states are made either partially or en¬ 
tirely from the land within another state. Then the con¬ 
sent of the legislature of any state that is affected must be 
obtained. Besides the thirteen original states, most of the 
states have been territories at one time, and have come 
into the union by the following process: 

Congress passes what is called an ‘‘enabling act.” This 
authorizes the people of a territory to elect delegates to a 
convention, which draws up a state constitution. This 
is submitted to the people of the territory and to Congress, 
and if it is approved, the President makes a proclamation 
that a new state has been admitted to the union. On 
the next Fourth of July the stars in the flag are increased 
by one. 

There are no laws requiring any particular area or popula¬ 
tion for a state when it is admitted to the union, and after 
a state is admitted, there is no way of getting rid of it 
without its own consent. Congress is expected to act 
wisely in this matter, and it has usually done so. Nevada 
and some other states, however, were admitted for political 
purposes, and today you could make ten Nevadas out of 
the city of Cleveland, as far as population is concerned. 


Territories 


335 


In some instances, special provisions have been made in 
admitting states. In Oklahoma, the liquor traffic was 
forbidden for 21 years for the benefit of the Indians, and 
Utah could not come in until the practice of polygamy 
had been forbidden. Your acquaintance with American 
history will tell you about the special questions of great 
importance that were connected with the admission of 
Missouri and California. 

Find out how your state came into the union. Were any special 
circumstances connected with its admission? If it was one of the 
original thirteen, look up the story of its ratification of the Constitu- 



McCulloughyPhoenix 

THE STATE CAPITOL OF ARIZONA. 

This is the headquarters of the public officials of our newest state. 


tion. Do you think there should be area and population requirements 
for new states? Why? Are any new states in sight now? 

160. Territories. — At the close of the Revolution, 
seven of the thirteen states claimed part of the land west 
of the Alleghany Mountains, but they finally gave it to 
the government as common property of the United States. 
The Constitution g'ves Congress the power to govern all 
territories. It does this with a view to their becoming 
states at some time. 

The President appoints a governor and other executive 






336 Some American Ideas About Government 

and judicial officers for the territories. Their terms are 
usually for four years. The people of the territory elect 
a legislature composed of two houses. Its laws may be 
vetoed by the governor, or disapproved by Congress. The 
people elect a delegate or commissioner to the House of 
Representatives, who has no vote, but may take part 
in debates. At present the territories of the United States 
are Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico. 



Courtesy Bureau of Construction and Repair 
A UNITED STATES WARSHIP IN THE PANAMA CANAL. 


161. Possessions. —Besides the territories, the United 
States owns other lands, which are called colonies or posses¬ 
sions. These are, at present, the islands of Guam, Tutuila, 
and the Virgin Islands, the Philippines, and the Panama 
Canal Zone. The three first named are managed by naval 
officers, and the Canal Zone by a civil governor and some 
subordinates. 

The Philippines have a government somewhat different 





The Departments of Government 337 

from that of any other possession. The President appoints a 
governor and vice governor, who must be Americans, and 
three other executives who may be either Americans or 
Filipinos. The men who are old enough, and can read and 
wnte some dialect or language, elect a legislature composed 
of a senate and a house of representatives, and two com¬ 
missioners to the United States House of Representatives. 

The Philippines need special government because condi¬ 
tions there are so different from those in any other region 
under our control. Our government’s aim in this matter 
is to give the Filipinos gradually more authority and re¬ 
sponsibility over their own affairs. They nearly govern 
themselves now. The independence of these islands is a 
much disputed question. We have promised to grant it 
when they are “ready” for it, but who knows when we will 
think that they are ready? 

The District of Columbia is on a different basis from 
any of these possessions. The District is considered to 
be the property of the whole country, and is governed 
directly under laws of Congress. The actual administra¬ 
tion of these laws is in the hands of three Commissioners 
appointed by the President. The people who live in the 
District permanently do not vote for anybody or anything, 
but Congressmen and other public officers consider that 
their legal residence is back home where they came from, 
and vote there. 

162. The Departments of Government. — In every 
government, three functions must be performed. These 
are law-making, law-enforcing, and law-applying. For 
these purposes, our government is divided into three de¬ 
partments—legislative, executive, and judicial. The legis¬ 
lative department is known as Congress, which is composed 
of the Senate and the House of Representatives, in the 
national government; the Legislature or General Assembly 
in the states; and the councils, trustees, commissioners, 
or the like, in local governments. The President, the 


338 Some American Ideas About Government 

Governor, and the Mayor, head the executive departments 
in the national, state, and city governments, respectively. 
The national and state courts, justices of the peace, aider- 
men, and police magistrates comprise the judicial depart¬ 
ments. These departments are in theory entirely separate, 
and act independently. 

163. Checks and Balances. — But in order to prevent 
any of these departments from becoming too powerful, 
our liberty-loving forefathers established what we call a 
“check and balance system.” This is a system by which 
each department of the government may restrain or “check” 
the actions of the others. 

The President may veto an act of Congress, or the courts 
may declare it unconstitutional. Congress may, in turn, 
pass the bill over the President’s veto, by means of a two- 
thirds vote, or bring impeachment charges against the Presi¬ 
dent or other executive officers or judges. In the state and 
local governments similar checks are usually established. 

This system, established for the security of the people, 
has sometimes made legislation a long and cumbersome 
proceeding, and has made it impossible to get some things 
done at all. It often ceases to be a check and becomes 
merely a fight for control. This is especially true when the 
President and a majority of Congress are of different parties. 
It gives the opportunity, too, for each side to blame the 
other when things do not go rightly. If our departments 
would work together instead of each jealously watching 
the actions of the others, much more would be accomplished, 
and it is not probable that the people would forfeit any 
of their liberty. 

Do you think Congress would be willing to propose a Constitutional 
amendment that would even partially abolish the check and balance 
system? Why? 

164. The Importance of a Constitution. — We have 
defined a constitution as a group of the fundamental laws 


What a Constitution Contains 


339 


for the government of a nation, state, city, or society. 
Now why do we have such constitutions? Not all govern¬ 
ments have them in writing. England has no single doc¬ 
ument as a constitution, but the fundamental principles 
of its government are set forth in the Magna Charta and 
the Bill of Rights, and other vital laws which have been 
drawn up from time to time. 

But a constitution sets forth the fundamental features 
of a government. It gives a basis upon which the govern¬ 
ment may work. In granting definite powers to certain 
bodies, the work of each department and of the officers 
in the department is clearly defined. No law may be 
passed which is contrary to the principles of the Constitu¬ 
tion. In this way the rights of the people are not infringed 
upon. 

A constitution will not become a drawback to any people 
if it contains provisions so that it can be amended and 
adapted to changing times. In order that a great many 
amendments will not have to be made, a constitution 
should be general in its statements, and not deal with 
many specific cases. It should set forth the framework and 
big fundamental features of government, but laws concern¬ 
ing details and minor matters can be made and altered 
from time to time. A constitution, then, gives a basis for 
the government, with some specific assignment of duties 
to officials, outlines the administration of the government, 
and protects the rights of individuals from the power of 
the government, putting into their hands the ability to 
change the constitution if they wish. 

Why do you suppose England can get along without a definite, 
written constitution? Are there any advantages in doing so? Da 
Americans need a written constitution more than other people? 

165. What a Constitution Contains. — There are at 
least five general divisions in almost every constitution. 
These are: 


340 Some American Ideas About Government 

(1) A preamble , or a statement of the purpose of the 
constitution. 

(2) An outline of the framework of the government. 

(3) Provisions for the duties of the officials and the powers 
which they may exercise. 

(4) A bill of rights, that is, an outline of the rights of 
the people, and provisions for their protection. 

(5) A “schedule,” that is, a statement of the time and 
manner of putting the constitution into effect. 

Our national Constitution is constructed on this general plan. Its 
purpose is set forth in the Preamble. Learn it. The main body 
of the Constitution is divided into seven Articles , which are subdivided 
into Sections. Be able to tell the subject of each article. 

We have made nineteen amendments to the Constitution. 
The first ten of these are in the nature of a Bill of Rights. 
They were passed shortly after the ratification of the Con¬ 
stitution, because the people were afraid that their rights 
might be taken away from them. The eleventh amend¬ 
ment forbids a citizen to bring suit against a state in the 
United States courts. Probably this amendment was a 
mistake. The twelfth requires presidential electors to 
vote for President and Vice-President separately. The 
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth deal with slavery, 
giving the negroes freedom, equal rights as citizens, and the 
privilege of voting. These were passed after the Civil 
War. The sixteenth amendment provides that Congress 
may levy an income tax, and the seventeenth that United 
States Senators shall be chosen by popular vote. The 
eighteenth amendment prohibits the sale of intoxicating 
liquor, and the nineteenth, and last, extends the right of 
suffrage to women. 

Study the organization of the United States Constitution so that 
you can readily find anything in it. What do you think of its con¬ 
struction? Does its language seem stilted, formal, or hard to under¬ 
stand? 


How Other Governments Differ from Ours 341 

166. How Our Constitution Is Amended. — In amend¬ 
ing the United States Constitution, as with most con¬ 
stitutions, two steps are necessary—proposal and ratifica¬ 
tion. There are two possible ways of proposing amendments, 
and two of ratifying them. An amendment may be 
proposed by a two-thirds vote of the Senate and the 
House of Representatives, or Congress may call a con¬ 
vention, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds 
of the states, which will propose amendments. They are 
then submitted to the states for ratification, and they must 
be ratified by three-fourths of the states, acting through 
their legislatures or special conventions, before they become 
a part of the Constitution. All the amendments that 
have been made so far, however, have been proposed by 
Congress and ratified by the state legislatures. It is not 
probable that the other method of proposing amendments 
will ever be used, because when public sentiment becomes 
strong enough to make this possible, the amendment is 
usually proposed by Congress. It is entirely possible, 
however, that some means of getting a popular vote on 
the ratification of amendments may be seriously considered 
when any more are proposed. 

Do you think there is any possibility of an amendment’s being 
proposed and ratified which the people really do not want? Would 
it be better if amendments were ratified by a general popular vote? 
Is there any reason for insisting on a two-thirds vote in Congress to 
propose amendments? 

167. How Other Governments Differ from Ours. —- 

We must remember, in our study of government, that not 
all governments are like that of the United States. There 
are, or have been at some time, several different forms of 
government. 

(1) A monarchy is a form of government in which the 
power is exercised by one person or in his name. If he 
has entire authority, the government is called an absolute 
monarchy; if his power is checked in any way, it is called a 


342 Some American Ideas About Government 

limited monarchy. There are no absolute monarchies 
today in the sense in which they used to exist. It was 
formerly true that in many cases the king or monarch 
of a country had the power of life and death over his 
subjects. But the authority of monarchs has been steadily 
decreasing, and the Great War destroyed several that had 
survived up to that time. Many countries, such as Great 
Britain and Italy, still keep up the custom of having a king 
at the head of the nation but he is usually little more than a 
figure-head. 

(2) A government is called an oligarchy if it is controlled 
by a small portion of the people, and if these are the noble¬ 
men or people who have money, we call it an aristocracy . 
No government now is entirely aristocratic, although some 
of them are not entirely free from such features. 

(3) A democracy is a government in which the people 
have direct power. Complete democracy is out of the 
question in most countries. Switzerland comes the nearest 
to being a pure democracy. 

(4) A republic is a form of government in which the 
people act through officers whom they elect. This is now 
a very common form of government. There is no difference 
in spirit between a democracy and a republic, but simply 
a question of how the will of the people shall be exercised 
and executed. Some countries call themselves republics 
which do not really understand what self-government 
means. 

The United States is a federal republic, as we have seen, 
but not all republics are federal. Many of them are divided 
into parts only for administrative purposes, as our states 
are divided into counties. France is an example of this— 
a centralized, not a federal government. England, although 
it is a monarchy in name, really has a republican form of 
government. Most of the South American countries are 
republics—in fact, there is a tendency everywhere in the 
world today to make governments republican. The war 


The Cabinet System 


343 


made even Germany get rid of its Kaiser and set up a fed¬ 
eral republic in place of the former federated empire. 

In what ways are republics better than monarchies? Can you 
imagine a situation where a monarchy would be preferable? Would 
it be better if all countries had the same kind of government? 

168. The Cabinet System. —What we call the “Cab¬ 
inet’’ in our government is not an official body. It has 
grown out of custom. At first the heads of the different 



OUR NATIONAL CAPITOL. 

Do we need to tell you where this is and for what it is used? 

departments were merely called together by the President 
to advise on various questions. Now the Cabinet meets 
regularly. But it is very different from the British Cabinet, 
from which it gets its name. Let us notice some of the 
greatest differences. 

(1) The members of our Cabinet can not be members of 
Congress; members of the British Cabinet have seats in 
Parliament. 












344 Some American Ideas About Government 

(2) Our Cabinet can only advise the passage of laws, or 
get a Congressman to introduce a bill as a favor; the Brit¬ 
ish Cabinet may propose laws, and generally control Parlia¬ 
ment. It is really a sort of governing committee of Parlia¬ 
ment. 

(3) Our Cabinet members usually all belong to the 
President’s party, and hold office as long as they please him; 
the British Cabinet belongs to the party that has control 
in the House of Commons, and its members hold office 
only as long as they can keep their authority in Parliament 

(4) The membership in the United States Cabinet is the 
same., except when new offices are permanently added, and 
the salary of all is $12,000; the number of ministers in the 
British Cabinet varies, and the salaries differ according 
to the office. 

(5) Members of our Cabinet often differ in opinion; the 
British Cabinet always acts as a unit. 

(6) The President is the executive head of the United 
States, and controls our Cabinet, but he has no direct 
law-making power. The prime minister, or premier, is the 
the real head of the British government. He holds office be¬ 
cause he has been accepted as the leader of the House of 
Commons. Since the House of Lords and the King have al¬ 
most no power, the Commons really make the laws, and the 
prime minister, as the head of the Cabinet, is also responsible 
in general for enforcing them. 

Many more countries have a Cabinet system like that of 
Great Britain than have our “presidential” system. 

Which system do you think is best? Why? Do you think some 
combination of both systems could be worked out? What features 
of each should be retained? Why? 

169. State Constitutions. — Each state has its consti¬ 
tution, which is the supreme law of the state, just as the 
national Constitution is the supreme law of the nation. 
Nothing in a state constitution or law, however, which 


State Constitutions 


345 


conflicts with any point of the United States Constitution, 
can be valid. State constitutions have usually been 
drawn up by special conventions to which delegates were 
elected, and they are supposed to represent the real will 
and principles of the people. Most of them have been 
ratified by the people of the state. Amendments are often 
proposed by the state legislatures, and then usually sub¬ 
mitted to the people for ratification. In states which have 
the initiative and referendum (§192) this method of amend¬ 
ment is often used. 

State constitutions differ greatly, but they all contain 
outlines of the government and provisions for its administra¬ 
tion, and all but one have a bill of rights. State constitutions 
are now much longer than the first ones were, partly because 
the country has grown and there are many more matters 
for the governments to deal with, and partly because there 
is now a tendency to include special provisions, and not to 
limit the statements to broad, general matters. States 
are usually more willing to amend their own constitutions 
than the national Constitution. Most of the states have 
adopted one or more constitutions since the first ones 
were made after the Revolution, some states having had 
as many as four or five. 

Look over your own state constitution. When was it adopted? 
What divisions does it contain? Has your state had more than one 
constitution? 

In the strict sense of the word a state is not sovereign, 
for its powers are limited by the Constitution of the United 
States. Yet it may do anything whatever that is not for¬ 
bidden under the national Constitution or the constitution 
of the state. For instance, it has absolute power over the 
life and death of its citizens if necessary to keep order or 
to punish crime. It can take the property of citizens 
under the right of eminent domain, though in this case 
it must pay whatever the property is really worth. There 


346 Some American Ideas About Government 

is no limit to its right to exercise its police power unless 
such limits are fixed by constitutional provisions. 

170. Subdivisions of States. — In order to make the 
administration of government easier, the states are sub¬ 
divided into counties, and these into cities, towns, or 
townships, and boroughs or villages . The New England 
states are divided into towns. These originated in colonial 
days and still exist. In the early part of our history, the 
southern states were divided into counties. Since these 
states were mostly composed of large plantations, and most 
of the people did not live in villages, the county was the 
best system for them. The middle states have a combina¬ 
tion of the two, the town-county, or mixed system. These 
three types exist not only in the eastern states, but have 
spread into the interior and the West. 

These subdivisions are created by the state legislatures, 
either by passing a special law for each one, or by the means 
provided in a general law, depending on the custom of the 
state. Boroughs or villages are generally communities 
which grow up within a township and obtain a special 
government of their own. New York has no boroughs 
(except that the divisions of New York City are so named), 
but calls such communities villages. Pennsylvania does 
the opposite. In Pennsylvania, a borough is completely 
cut off from a township to which it belonged. In New 
York a village is still considered in several respects a part 
of the town within which it grew up. In making new divi¬ 
sions, some states have area and population requirements. 
In several western states the township was formed from 
the so-called “Congressional township,” a district six miles 
square, which was used as a unit for surveying the land. 

The county is, except in New England and in the case 
of a few large cities, the most important subdivision of 
the state. It can deal with its own people, their needs 
and their problems, better than the state governments, 
because it comes more closely in touch with them than the 


Subdivisions of States 


347 


state. For the same reason the other smaller divisions 
are made, to do certain things, such as giving fire and 
police protection, paving streets, maintaining schools, 




CITY OF BOSTON 


Health Department 


Sin Appeal to Cfitants. 

health Department urges tfjat cPrrp tenant of tfjesc 
. premises, for f)is oton sake anb for tlje sake of fjis 
fellotu tenants, tomplo toitli the following instructions. 

®Hm. C. SLJloobtuarb, 

Commissioner, 


1. Keep your own rooms clean. 

2. Throw no garbage, ashes or (rash into the hallways, 
bathrooms, water-closets, or areawavs, or on the stairs. 
If an accident happens, clean up at once. 

3. Do not put .garbage, ashes or trash into the cellar, 
yards, areaway or court, except into the cans, barrels and 
boxes provided lor such materials, for garbage provide 
a water-tight, covered receptacle, preferably o( metal, for 
ashes and rubbish the law requires metal receptacles. 

4. If your garbage, ashes or rubbish is not taKen 
away when it should he, report to the Department ol 
Public Works. Room SOS. City Hall Annex, Telephone 
Cali, fort hill 5100, Branch 253. 

5. Be careful when using water-closets, bathrooms 
and sinks. See that your childicr arc careful, too. It an 
accident happens, dean up at one: 


6. Let plenty of light and air into your rooms. Keep 
your windows clean and open. 

7. Do not overcrowd your rooms. V ou cannot get 
enough light and air in if you overcrowd. 

>5. Keep clean your kitchen, your refrigerators and 
all pots, pans, dishes, etc., used in caring (or and serving 
food. 

0. Put nothing on your (ire escape. It may be in 
your way in case of (ire. 

10. It vou think your landlord or your neighbor docs 
not do his part to keep the premises in good order, talk 
to him about it. If you do not set satisfaction report the 
matter to the Health Department. Room till, Gty Hall 
Annex. Telephone Call, fort Hill 5100, Branch 107. 


j 


AN APPEAL FOR CLEANLINESS. 

Posters or placards like this are printed in several languages and 
distributed where advice is needed. 


and the like, with direct attention to local needs. Officers 
having legislative, executive, and judicial duties are found in 
all the local governments. 












348 Some American Ideas About Government 

What sort of matters can a county deal with better than a stated 
a city? a town or township? a borough or village? What kinds of 
local government exist in your state? To what extent, ,if at all, do 
they differ from any of the descriptions given above? 

171. Special Problems of City Government. — A city 
is a community, usually thickly populated, which is gov¬ 
erned under a charter granted to it in accordance with an 
act of the state legislature. 

In several states a city is allowed to choose for itself 
what form of government it will have, at least as far 
as the details are concerned. Permitting cities to have 
this privilege is sometimes spoken of as granting home 
rule. 

Some state legislatures deal separately with every city, 
but others have general laws. In the latter, the cities 
are classified according to size. In Pennsylvania the 
classification is as follows: Cities of 10,000 to 125,000, 
third class; 125,000 to 1,000,000, second class; 1,000,000 or 
over, first class. In New York, cities with 175,000 or 
more people are first class; with 50,000 to 175,000, second 
class; with less than 50,000, third class. There is no definite 
number of people required to make a city in some states, 
but others have population requirements, such as 8,000 or 
10 , 000 . 

This classification is necessary, because of course a city 
with a million people has a greater variety of needs than 
one containing twenty thousand. If a state’s constitution 
does not allow the legislature to deal with cities separately, 
it will at least permit a division into classes, and then each 
class can be treated as it needs. In some states the classi¬ 
fication has been made so minutely that it is almost or 
quite possible to pass laws for one city, since it may be the 
only place in its class. 

Is there any reason why a legislature should not be allowed to pass 
laws for one city alone? What is the custom of your state in this 
respect? If you live in a city, in what class is it? 


Our Relation to Other Countries 349 


Large cities, just because they are large, meet special 
difficulties in government. Their great population and 
crowded sections make very thorough and extensive health 
laws necessary. The educational needs of a great many 
people must be met, and the protection of the people is an 
important feature. Convenience and the demands of 



Courtesy Air Service 

NEW YORK FROM THE AIR. 


The tallest structure here is the famous Woolworth Building, the 
highest in the world. New York’s Municipal Building and two of 
the bridges across the East River to Brooklyn are also plainly shown. 
Notice how completely covered with buildings is the ground in this 
business center of the United States. 

business make street construction and repair a vital matter. 
In short, the welfare of great numbers of people must be 
cared for, and this presents many problems with which 
other communities do not have to deal. 

172. Our Relation to Other Countries. — Recall our 
definition of a community. Town, city, state, nation, are 
clearly communities in a real sense. Is it proper to think 
of the world in the same way? Once we could have said, 








350 Some American Ideas About Government 

No. But today every important nation is more closely 
acquainted with every other than New Hampshire was with 
Georgia in 1789. 

In the early history of our country, the United States 
seemed not very directly related to the other countries of 
the world. Washington warned the people in his Farewell 
Address against ‘‘permanent alliances with any portion 
of the foreign world.” Some people nowadays quote this 
doctrine of Washington’s as if it meant that we must not 
have any associations with the rest of the world, even for a 
good purpose. Surely he did not mean that. He had in 
mind alliances with one part of Europe against another part. 
Besides, the world today and this country today are far 
different from what they were in his time. 

The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 is also interpreted by 
some as a further step toward keeping the Old World and 
the New World apart. It declared that the United States 
would consider any attempt on the part of European powers 
to gain further control in the New World as evidence of an 
unfriendly disposition toward the United States, and as¬ 
serted that we had no intention of interfering in purely 
European affairs. At that time the United States had 
practically no army or navy to enforce such a declaration, 
if anybody had defied it. But England was in hearty 
sympathy with it and had even proposed to make some 
such statement jointly with us. The other European 
countries therefore respected it. Ever since then, our 
government has clung to this doctrine in our relations with 
foreign countries. But as this Doctrine was simply for 
the purpose of protecting the interests of the rest of the 
New World as well as our own, it should hardly be thought 
of as meaning isolation. 

We realize now that no country can get along without 
other nations. We are all interdependent, and need each 
other. A policy of isolation is impossible. In the dealings 
of nations with one another, we observe what we call 


Our Relation to Other Countries 351 

international law . This is the code which governs the con¬ 
duct of nations in their relations and dealings with one 
another. International law depends upon the ideals and 
morals of the nations, because thus far we have had no 
way of enforcing it except by war. Perhaps under the 
League of Nations the world may obtain both a clearer 
statement of what international law is, and a more sure 
means of enforcing its principles. 



SIGNERS OF THE PEACE TREATY OF VERSAILLES, 1919. 


The names of the signers from the United States and Great Britain 
appear on these two pages. The treaty was printed in French and 
English. 

Nations often make agreements with each other which 
are called treaties . Sometimes these concern small matters, 
but sometimes are very vital and far-reaching and may 
even help to establish international law. Under our Con¬ 
stitution treaties are made by the President or under his 
direction. They must be submitted to the Senate, and will 
not go into effect unless that body ratifies them by a 
two-thirds vote. This requirement sometimes makes it 
hard to get a treaty ratified. 
















3 52 Some American Ideas About Government 

All countries send ambassadors or ministers to foreign 
countries. They represent their governments in other 
nations. Our ambassadors are appointed by the President 
and confirmed by the Senate. We also have consuls sta¬ 
tioned in every important foreign city, and foreign countries 
do the same here. The consul looks out for the welfare 
of citizens of his nation who may happen to be in his neigh¬ 
borhood, and gathers information which may be of benefit 
to his home country, especially in a commercial way. 

173. Arbitration. — Laying a dispute before impartial 
judges for a decision is called arbitration. This means of 
settling questions has become very common in international 
affairs. England and the United States especially have 
employed it several times. It is surely an improvement 
over the former way of going to war on the slightest pretext. 
Most disagreements can be settled peaceably by arbitra¬ 
tion, and even the losing side will be far better off than 
to have spent billions of dollars and lost thousands of lives, 
if no question of honor is involved. 

The Hague Conferences, which we have mentioned 
(§45), established a Court of Arbitration to which govern¬ 
ments referred many disagreements, and the settlements 
they made proved very satisfactory. But there was no 
way of compelling a nation to accept the Court’s services 
if it did not want to. And all the influence that could be 
brought to bear could not dissuade Austria and Germany 
from forcing the Great War upon the world in 1914. 

174. The League of Nations. —We are learning, how¬ 
ever, all these nations are learning, and the time will come 
when we shall realize that this has become a world com¬ 
munity, and we shall rightly call ourselves members of it. 
A great step which has been taken in the direction of in¬ 
ternational understanding and cooperation is the League of 
Nations. The Covenant of the League was drawn up in con¬ 
nection with the Versailles Treaty of Peace in 1919 (§45). 

The purpose of the League of Nations is to prevent war. 


353 


The League of Nations 

Every nation which belongs to the League is pledged to 
submit all disputes to arbitration and not to go to war 
under any circumstances for several months after a 
disagreement arises. If any nation violates its pledges, 
provisions are made for a boycott against that nation. 
The League aims to protect its members from unprovoked 
attack by any nation. 

It works through two bodies, the Council and the As¬ 
sembly. The Assembly is composed of representatives 



International 


THE HOME OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS. 

This beautiful building at Geneva was formerly a hotel, but has been 
bought for a kind of capitol for the League. 

from every nation. Ten nations are now represented on 
the Council, which has the real executive authority in the 
League, but even in that body nothing may be done except 
by unanimous vote. A Permanent Court of Interna¬ 
tional Justice has now been organized, composed of eleven 
judges, who are elected by the League Council and As¬ 
sembly, but who act entirely independently. They meet 
at The Hague. 

The League has a number of worthy accomplishments to 






354 Some American Ideas About Government 


its credit. To the disappointment of many people in our 
own country and elsewhere, the United States, however, 
has thus far failed to join. Under Presidents Harding 
and Coolidge we have cooperated with the League in 
several of its undertakings, and our Senate may soon 
take their advice and join in the support of the World 
Court. 

Do you understand the League of Nations? Make a list of th& 
arguments you have heard in favor of it and against it; then try tc 
find from the League Covenant itself whether these arguments are jus\ 
and sensible. 


QUESTIONS 

What do we mean by majority rule? Why do Americans believe 
in it? Distinguish between majority and plurality. By what means 
may a majority gain control? Which of these are justifiable? Is 
minority rule ever right? What are the duties of the majority toward 
the minority? 

What is representative government? Why do we have it? Trace 
some of the important events in connection with popular government 
in England. Mention some similar instances in that of the United 
States. 

What is the federal principle of government? Give examples. 
Define federation and confederation. Why is the United States a 
federal republic? What is our national Constitution and when was it 
formed? What powers are placed entirely in the hands of the na¬ 
tional government? Which are left wholly or mainly to the states? 
What does the constitution say about making new states? What 
process is usually followed in doing so? How is a territory governed? 
What is its relation to the states? Name our colonial possessions. 
What has been our policy in governing the Philippines? How are 
our other possessions governed? How is the District of Columbia 
governed? 

Explain the three departments of government? What is meant by 
“checks and balances?” Are they beneficial? 

Why do we believe a constitution is important? What should it 
contain? How many amendments have been made in our national 
Constitution? What do they deal with? Explain the process of 
making an amendment. 

Explain the different forms of national governments which have 
existed in the world. Distinguish between a federal and a centralized 


Themes and Exercises 


355 


government. Explain the principal features of the British Cabinet 
system. Compare it with what we call the Cabinet. How are laws 
made in Great Britain? 

How are state constitutions made? What do they contain? How 
much authority does a state possess? 

How are states divided politically? Who forms these divisions? 
Which is most important? What is a congressional township? What 
is a city? Why are cities usually classified? Why is the government 
of large cities difficult? 

Is the world a community? What is international law? What was 
Washington’s idea of our relation to foreign countries? Of what 
value was the Monroe Doctrine? How are dealings with foreign 
countries carried on? Explain arbitration. To what extent has it 
been used among nations? Why was the League of Nations formed? 
Outline its organization. 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

Making Treaties. 

Ambassadors—their Responsibility and Salaries. 

Cabinet Changes in Great Britain. 

Resolved, that the United States ought to adopt the English Cabinet 
system. 

The Government of Germany Before and After the Great War. 

Resolved, that the States ought to be abolished. 

Resolved, that civilized nations should never engage in war with 
one another. 

The Spoils System in American History. 

Resolved, that the Government should never interfere with the 
right of citizens to free speech. 

The Making of the United States Constitution. 

The History of Our State up to the Time It Was Admitted. 

Resolved, that the Philippines should immediately receive their 
independence. 

The Making of the Constitution of Our State. 

Amending Our State Constitution. 

Resolved, that every city should be allowed to determine its own 
form of government. 

Resolved, that the Monroe Doctrine should be abolished. 

The History of the Hague Conferences. 

The United States and the International Arbitration. 

The Accomplishments of the League of Nations. 

Resolved, that the United States should belong to the League of 
Nations 


CHAPTER XII 


\ 


LAW-MAKING AND LAW-ENFORCING 


That man alone is truly free who is able to rule himself and to submit 
his own will to the higher authority, the authority of the law. — O'Brien. 


175. What Is a Law? — In almost every phase of our 
life together, law is necessary. Our homes would be very 
disorderly indeed if certain rules for the conduct of the 
members were not made. What kind of place is it where 
members of the family come for meals at any time, and 
come home at any hour of the night that they choose! In 
school, too, what a state of affairs would there be if teachers 
and pupils came to school at any hour, and left when 
they chose, or remained away whenever they felt like it! 
What a farce a football game would be if the ends and tackles 
played anywhere they pleased, and the backs ran in any 
direction they wanted to go! There must be rules— laws. 

For the same reason, law-making is the most important 
feature in government. Monarchies and democracies 
have equal need of laws. But what is a law? It is a 
rule made by the people or by their representatives for the 
purpose of guiding the conduct of the people. 

There is, or ought to be, a clear difference between a law 
and a constitution. A law is a single rule. A constitution 
is a collection of the fundamental facts about the form and 
powers of a government. Laws are subordinate to constitu¬ 
tions, and are passed under their authority. Laws deal 
with specific matters, constitutions with general features 
of government. 

Law-making is the first work of government. There is 
356 




357 


How Laws May Be Suggested 

no authority without it; there can be no government 
without it. In olden times, when kings had absolute power, 
their will made the laws, and they saw that the laws were 
carried out. Now we have our three departments, but if 
we did not have a law-making body, there would be no 
need of the executive and judicial departments. Laws 
have to be made before they can be enforced or interpreted. 

Who makes the laws in a family ? a church? a school? 

176. How Laws May Be Suggested.—Do not think 
that all our laws have their origin in the Constitution or 
the law-making bodies. They come from many sources. 
There are, in all countries, “unwritten laws.” These are 
customs which have been established and are handed down 
from generation to generation. Sometimes these customs 
are so generally observed that we call them even the “un¬ 
written constitution.” An example of such a custom is the 
habit of allowing only two terms for Presidents, because 
Washington had only two. 

No court would punish a man for disobeying an un¬ 
written law, but with some people custom is as strong as 
the statute laws of our government. In many cases, 
custom becomes fixed with a people, and then, in order 
that it shall continue to be observed, they make it into a 
definite, written law. Murder, for instance, was considered 
wrong before laws were enacted which made it punishable 
by death or life imprisonment. People out driving got 
into the habit of turning to the right when they met some 
one, and now, in a city, a person might be fined for not 
doing it. In England and most of Canada they turn to 
the left just as regularly. 

Comparatively few of our laws originate with our legisla¬ 
tors. A great many of them are the result of public senti¬ 
ment, and are introduced in legislatures and in Congress 
only because the people request and even demand them. 
A petition may be drawn up by an individual, a society, a 


358 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 


board of trade, or a chamber of commerce, signed by one 
person or a number of people, and sent to a representative in 
the state legislature or the United States Congress. If the 
members of these bodies really represent the wishes of the 
people, they will introduce the bills which the people want. 

In addition to sending petitions or seeking law-makers in 

GENERAL—ALL COUNTIES. 

[One hundred thirty folios.] 


LAWS OF NEW YORK.—By Authority. 

CTiap. 786. 

AN ACT to amend the education law, by providing for a board of 
education in the several cities of the state. 


Became a law June 8 , 1917, with the approval of the Governor. Passed, 
three-fifths being present. 

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate 
and. Assembly, do enact as follows: 

Section 1. Chapter twenty-one of the laws of nineteen hundred 
and nine, entitled “An act relating to education, constituting 
chapter sixteen of the consolidated laws,” as amended by chapter 
one hundred and forty of the laws of nineteen hundred and ten, 
is hereby further amended by inserting therein a new article, to 
be known as article thirty-three-a, and to read as follows: 


ARTICLE 33-A. 

Board of Education in the Several Cities of the State. 


Section 865. 
866 . 

867. 

868 . 

869. 

870. 


Board of education. 

Board of education; eligibility; how chosen; term 
of office; vacancies. 

Meetings of board of education. 

Powers and duties of board of education. 
Superintendent of schools. 

Powers and duties of superintendent of schools. 


* THE PRINTED FORM OF A LAW. 

Here you see the form of “enacting clause” used in the New York 
Legislature, and other features of the style in which laws are com¬ 
posed and published. 



359 


How Laws May Be Suggested 

person, people may have a hand in making laws by stirring 
up interest and sentiment. This may be done through the 
newspapers and magazines. Newspapers are very responsive 
to public opinion, and urge what most of the people want, 
because the papers depend upon the people for their support. 

The executives also may propose laws in various ways. 
They may do this by delivering speeches or sending mes¬ 
sages to the legislative bodies. Presidents and governors 
do this regularly, and President Wilson seems to have 
reestablished the custom of reading messages to Congress 
in person. Whether he is President or Governor or Mayor, 
the fact that a man is the chief executive makes his opinion 
have a great deal of weight. His influence in law-making 
is therefore considerable. 

But it is with the legislators themselves that the actual 
introduction of laws rests. They present the bills and 
get other members interested. They may do this by 
making speeches and by talking with others privately. 
Two practices which are sometimes abused are known as 
‘‘lobbying’’ and “log-rolling.” 

Lobbying is consulting with or bringing influence to bear 
on some member of a law-making body outside of the halls of 
Congress or Legislature. This may be honorable or not, de¬ 
pending on the kind of influence that is used. Log-rolling is 
an agreement among members of a law-making body to sup¬ 
port one another’s bills—“I’ll vote for your bill if you’ll vote 
for mine.” This is done a great deal with bills appropriat¬ 
ing money, for almost every legislator has some institution 
or enterprise'for which he wants to have public money spent. 

After all, the people are the source of the laws, both those 
which have come down to us, and those which are made now. 
In the long run, the law-making bodies are instruments of the 
people, and do what the people want or permit to be done. 

If you wanted to get a law passed forbidding the manufacture of 
cigarettes, how would you go about it? When would lobbying be 
right, and in what form? Is log-rolling ever justifiable? 


360 


Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 


177. Our National Law-Making Body. — “All legisla¬ 
tive powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress 
of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a 
House of Representatives.” This is what our Constitution 
says. The states also have legislatures composed of two 
houses. This arrangement was derived partly from the 
English Parliament, for the makers of our government 
thought they were following English customs more closely 
than they really were. Besides, having two houses was 
intended to put a check on the powers of either house. 

The Senate is composed of ninety-six members, two 
from each state. They are elected for six years, but the. 
terms are so arranged that one-third of the members go 
out of office every two years. This prevents the entire 
Senate’s being changed at the same time. Many senator^ 
are reelected when their terms expire, too. A United 
States Senator must be thirty years old, a citizen of the 
United States for nine years, and a resident of the state 
in which he is elected. 

Who are the Senators from your state? How long have they been 
in office? Find out what you can about them. 

The Vice-President is the presiding officer of the Senate, 
and there is also a president pro tempore , who is elected 
by the Senators from their own number and presides in the 
absence of the Vice-President. There is also a secretary, 
a postmaster, a doorkeeper, a chaplain, and a sergeant- 
at-arms, each with his special duties, which can be guessed 
from their titles. 

Most of the powers of Congress are shared equally by 
both houses, but some important powers belong to the Senate 
alone. Most appointments made by the President must 
be confirmed by the Senate, and all treaties which are 
made under his direction must be submitted to it. These 
do not go into effect until they are ratified by a two-thirds 
vote. Besides, if the House of Representatives brings up 


361 


Our National Law-Making Body 

“impeachment” charges against a public officer who is 
said to have done wrong, the Senate tries him. It must 
give a two-thirds vote against him in order to convict him. 

There are at present (1922) 435 members of the House of 
Representatives. After each census, Congress passes a 
law making a new “apportionment” for representatives. 
The number from any state depends upon its population, 
but every state has at least one. After a new apportion¬ 
ment, the state legislature should divide the state into as 
many districts as it has representatives, so that each 
district may elect one, but this is not always done. When 
necessary extra representatives are elected by the whole 
state and are known as Congressman-at-large . Sometimes 
a legislature will divide a state into districts of queer 
shapes or uneven sizes, in order to give advantage to some 
party. This performance is called a gerrymander. 

The term of representatives is two years, and they must 
be twenty-five years of age, citizens of the United States 
for seven years, and residents of the states in which they 
are elected. Usually they live in the district which they 
represent, although this is not required. 

Find out all you can about the representative in whose district you 
live. 

The House elects a Speaker, who belongs to the majority 
party in the House. He has considerable power, although 
not so much as formerly. He presides over the meetings 
of the House, and a member who wishes to speak must 
be recognized by the Speaker. There are also a clerk, a 
sergeant-at-arms, and other officers, much the same as those 
in the Senate. 

The House has two special powers. It may bring im¬ 
peachment charges against any federal officer whom it 
accuses of wrong-doing, and all revenue bills—for raising 
money—must originate here. The Senate, however, as we 
have said, decides whether an officer is guilty, and it often 



362 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

amends money bills so that their author can hardly recog- 
nize them. 

Elections to Congress are held the Tuesday after the 
first Monday in November in even years, except in Maine, 
where they are held in September, at the time of the state 
election. The terms of Congressmen begin the fourth 
of the following March. Each Congress runs from that 
date until March 4 two years later. It is referred to by 


THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON AT NIGHT. 

During the War this building was dark, but on the night after 
the signing of the Armistice, when this picture was taken, it was 
brilliantly lighted again. 

number, counting from 1789, so that the Congress which 
ends March 4,1923, is the 67th (1923—1789, divided by 2). 

During the life of a Congress there are two regular ses¬ 
sions. The first, called the long session, lasts from the 
first Monday in December in odd years until it is ready to 
adjourn—usually the following spring or early summer. 
The short session begins the first Monday in December in 






The Part of Committees in Law-Making 363 

even years, and ends at noon on March 4, when the terms 
of the Representatives and of some Senators expire. The 
President may call special sessions of Congress at other 
times, or may call only the Senate, when treaties and 
such matters are to be considered. 

There are certain privileges given to Congressmen by 
the Constitution, and some restrictions made upon them 
also. No Congressman may be arrested during the sessions 
of Congress, except for the commission of a crime. This 
provision is meant to prevent a person’s bringing needless 
suits against members of Congress, and hindering their 
attendance. Besides this, no member may be called to ac¬ 
count outside of Congress for anything he says in Congress. 
This privilege is intended to promote perfectly free dis¬ 
cussion of all matters in the two houses. A member of Con¬ 
gress can not hold any other office under the government, 
But he may, if he wishes, resign his office and take another, 
unless the office has been newly created or has had its salary 
increased during the time for which he was originally elected 

The salary of a Congressman is $7,500 a year. Besides 
this, he is allowed $3,200 for a secretary, and his traveling 
expenses between Washington and his home in going to and 
from a session are paid. He also receives free stationery, 
and he pays no postage for official mail if his name is written 
or stamped on it. This last is called the franking privilege. 

Is there any reason why a Congress whose term begins March 4 
should wait until December before starting its regular sessions? 
Do you think the privileges granted to Congressmen are fair? 
Are they paid enough? Do many people in your district or state seem 
to want to be Representatives or Senators? Is there anything un¬ 
pleasant about their work? 

178. The Part of Committees in Law-Making. —Since 
15,000 or 16,000 measures may be introduced in one Con¬ 
gress, they could not possibly be considered if every one 
of the 435 Representatives and 96 Senators had a chance 
to talk on all of them. So in both houses of Congress 


364 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 


there are many standing committees which have been 
established for the purpose of receiving bills and resolutions, 
saving time, and making things run smoothly. There are 
the Foreign Relations Committee and Finance Committee 
in the Senate, the Ways and Means Committee and the In¬ 
terstate and Foreign Commerce Committee in the House, 
and many others, each dealing with a particular kind of 
matter. When a bill is introduced, it is referred to the 
proper committee for consideration. Many good and bad 
bills are killed in committees. Some bills which are re¬ 
ported back to the houses are very much changed. Though 
either house often declines to accept all the recommendations 
of its committees, it is very rare that a bill is passed against 
the wishes of the committee which has considered it. 

The Committees of Congress number about sixty in 
the House and thirty-five in the Senate. Their member¬ 
ship ranges from three to twenty-two in the House and 
from three to fifteen in the Senate. The majority of the 
members of all important committees belong to the party 
which has a majority in the house to which a committee 
belongs. On this account, many bills are accepted or re¬ 
jected for party reasons. 

There are many objections to this committee system. 
Most bills receive much more discussion in the committee 
than in public sessions of either house—that is, if a bill 
is fortunate enough to be considered at all. The committees 
therefore are very powerful. They do much of the work of 
law-making, and some bills do not get a square deal. Yet 
nobody has found any better way to handle the thousands 
of bills that come up during a session. 

Find out the titles of the chief committees of the Senate and the 
House. (See Congressional Directory or World Almanac.) Do 
you think any of them could be dispensed with? Which ones? Why? 

179. Steps in Passing a Bill.—Let us follow a bill 
through the principal steps of its passage. A bill may be 


365 


Steps in Passing a Bill 

introduced in either house, unless it is a revenue bill, which 
must originate in the House of Representatives. It is 
referred to the committee that deals with such bills, and 
if it is not killed by the committee, it is reported back to the 
house, with perhaps some changes proposed. It is then put 
on the calendar to wait for its turn. 

When the time comes, the bill is brought up before the 
house for discussion and debate, and perhaps amendment. 
Sometimes this continues for several weeks. When a final 
roll call is taken, if a majority of those present vote for it, 
the bill passes the first house. This assumes, of course, 
that a quorum is present. A quorum means the number 
who must attend to do business legally. In Congress and 
in most of our state legislatures a majority of the whole 
membership is necessary to make a quorum. 

What is the smallest possible vote that could ever pass a bill in the 
House and the Senate? 

It then goes through the same process in the other house. 
If any changes are made, the bill must go back to the first 
house for its agreement. If the two houses do not agree, 
they appoint a special conference committee, which tries to 
settle their differences. When both houses have agreed 
on the bill in just the same form, it is sent to the President. 

If the President approves the bill, he signs it and it 
becomes a law. If he does not wish it to pass, he “vetoes” 
it, sending it back to the house where it originated with a 
statement of his reasons for not signing it; but Congress 
can pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote. If he does not 
like it but does not intend to stand in the way of its pas¬ 
sage, he keeps it for ten days, at the end of which it becomes 
a law without his signature. But if a session of Congress 
ends during the ten days in which a president is allowed 
to consider bills, they do not become laws unless he signs 
them. If a bill fails under these circumstances, it is said 
to have received a “pocket veto.” 


366 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

There are many tricks resorted to in the making of laws. 
The rules which each house adopts to regulate its business 
are rather complicated. In the House debate may be 
limited without very much difficulty, but in the Senate 
members usually talk as long as they please, even though 
hardly any senators may stay to listen to them. Sometimes 
near the end of a session, a senator, or several senators, 
who wish to defeat a bill, will try what is known as “fili¬ 
bustering.” One man gets the floor and talks for hours 
at a stretch, on any subject he wishes. He can not be 
forced to stop, and he may waste enough time to make it 
impossible to get the bill through. Sometimes one man will 
“yield the floor” to another who thinks the same way, 
and thus they keep matters in their own hands. 

The Senate now has a rule that if two-thirds of the 
members sign a petition to close debate on some measure, 
no senator may talk more than an hour on that bill there¬ 
after. This keeps one or two persons from defeating 
a measure that most of the members want. But even 
this rule does not help much at the close of a session, and 
Congress has a bad habit of leaving some very important 
measures until just before it is time to adjourn finally. 

Is it desirable to have law-making such a complicated matter? Can 
it be helped? Are there any reforms which you think should be made? 
Are they possible? 

180. Agencies for Enforcing Laws. — Some people 
seem to think that all you have to do to correct an evil 
is to make a law. Laws are tremendously important, as 
we have learned. But no matter how many laws are made, 
we should not have much government if they were not 
enforced. If a teacher or a principal makes a rule in re¬ 
gard to tardiness, for example, and then punishes nobody 
who is late, do you think some pupils would respect it? 
It is the same way in government. 

For the purpose of enforcing the laws, we have our 


367 


Agencies for Enforcing Laws 

executive departments. In speaking of the elements 
of welfare we have mentioned officer after officer who has 
something to do in promoting them. All we need to do 
now is to bring these various officers together, perhaps 
adding a few others, and we shall have our executive de¬ 
partments right before us. We will use first the national 
government as an example of the way the executive branch 
of the government is put together. 

The President is the chief executive of the nation. Under 



Copyright , Harris & Ewing 

INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION IN SESSION. 


him are several departments, each dealing with certain 
matters, and subordinate to these are many bureaus and 
the like. It is necessary to have this great, thorough 
system of administration in order to deal with the many 
phases of our national life. 

The courts, as we have noticed in an earlier chapter, 
also help in the administration of government, for they 
interpret the laws that are made, and help to execute 
them by punishing those who disobey them. If the three 











368 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

departments did not help each other in this way, we might 
not have any government at all. 

In addition to the President, the departments, and the 
courts, we have special commissions which have their 
part in administering the laws. 

One of the most important of these is the Interstate 
Commerce Commission , established in 1887, which super¬ 
vises trade between states. It is composed of eleven mem¬ 
bers appointed by the President. Its powers have been 
explained in Section 99. 

Another commission is the Civil Service Commission. 
This was established in 1883. Sensible people had seen 
the evils of the so-called “spoils system” long before, but 
when President Garfield was murdered by a man who could 
not get the office he wanted, the seriousness of the thing 
could not be ignored any further. For a long time, Presi¬ 
dents were in the habit of turning out all office holders of 
the other party, and appointing members of their own party 
to the offices. Even after the Commission was established, 
it was years before very many offices were filled through 
its agency. 

The Civil Service Commission gives examinations to 
people applying for offices such as clerks, postmasters, 
mail carriers, custom-house employees, and many other 
subordinate officers, some of whom must be highly educated 
along special lines. Those who pass are put on an “eligible 
list,” and when a position is vacant, one of the three highest 
on the list obtains it. No high officer in any department 
has to take such an examination, for you can not tell by a 
written examination whether he has real business or execu¬ 
tive ability. But you can tell whether a person has good 
general knowledge of the subjects which everyone studies 
in school; and whether he knows something about chemistry 
or mechanical drawing or some other special subject. This 
method prevents putting into office people who are not in 
any way qualified for the position. 


The President’s Part in Government 369 

The President may designate the offices for which ex¬ 
aminations must be taken. These have been greatly 
increased since the Commission was established. The 
President appoints the three members of the Commission, 
and there is also a chief examiner and other clerks that are 
found to be necessary. 

There is also the Federal Trade Commission. Its pur¬ 
pose is to watch the methods used by “big business,” large 
companies, corporations, and the like. It sees that they 
obey the laws, and it can forbid business methods which it 
does not think are right. Corporations must send reports 
to the Commission, and it makes recommendations to 
Congress concerning trade in the country. 

These are all agencies for enforcing laws. Each has its 
particular work to do, and by having such division of 
responsibility, the great work of administration can be 
successfully carried on. 

Is there any constitutional basis for the Interstate Commerce 
Commission? Try one or two examinations which have been given 
by the Civil Service Commission. Under what Presidents were the 
offices requiring examinations greatly extended? How much power 
do you think the Federal Trade Commission should have? 

181. The President’s Part in Government.—The 
presidency is the highest office in the United States. We 
look upon our President as other countries do upon their 
kings or emperors. We want the President to be a man of 
high ideals, high standards, and high morals, who will up¬ 
hold the good name of our country in his administration 
of the laws here at home, and in our relations with other 
countries. 

The term of the President is for four years. The Con¬ 
stitution says nothing about the number of terms which a 
President may have. Several Presidents have had two 
terms, but, on account of custom, never more than two. A 
President must be 35 years of age, a native-born citizen 
of the United States, ^nd a resident of this country for 


370 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

14 years. These requirements are intended to make sure 
that all Presidents are real Americans. Most Presidents 
are above the age requirement. The salary of the Presi¬ 
dent is $75,000 a year. He lives in the White House at 
Washington, and his traveling expenses are paid, providing 
they do not exceed $25,000. 

If the President dies or is removed or is wholly unable 
to carry on his work, the Vice-President takes his place. 
If the vice-presidency also is vacant, the following officers, 
in order, succeed to the presidency: Secretary of State, 
Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney- 
General, Postmaster General, Secretary of the Navy, and 
Secretary of the Interior. It is utterly improbable, of 
course, that this will ever have to be carried out. 

Who should determine when a president is unable to perform his 
duties? (This question has never been finally decided.) 

Why is it not likely that any officer below the Secretary of State 
will ever become President? Is it a sensible custom not to allow a 
president more than two terms? Would a business firm dismiss a 
manager because he had served eight years? 

The President has many powers and duties. They may 
be classed as follows: 

(1) He is the chief executive of the nation, and it is his 
duty to carry out the laws. He does this not so much 
by actual work himself as by his attitude toward law and 
its administration, for the President, on account of the 
office he holds, has a great deal of influence, and he can 
appoint men who will be honest and faithful and can re¬ 
move those who are not. 

(2) The President is commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy, and also of the state militia, when it is in the 
service of the national government. He may call them 
out for service at any time, but the power to declare war 
belongs to Congress. 

(3) He makes a great many appointments to offices 
not otherwise designated. Most of these are subject to 


The President’s Part in Government 371 

the approval of the Senate. Among the important ap¬ 
pointments are those of ambassadors and ministers to 
foreign countries, federal judges, high officers in the various 
departments at Washington, and thousands of postmasters 
at large or medium-sized post offices. 

“Senatorial courtesy/’ as it is called, is practiced in this 
connection. This is the custom of allowing Senators from 
a state to prevent the approval of the appointment of a 
man from their state, if they do not like him for some reason. 
Naturally the President must take advice from somebody 
about appointments, for he can not possibly know all the 
people who would like to hold offices or are fit to hold them. 
But this “senatorial courtesy” sometimes keeps a good 
man from getting an office, merely on account of some 
personal prejudice. 

The President, besides making appointments, signs the 
commissions of these officers, and may also remove from 
office any one whom he appoints, except judges. 

(4) The President may make treaties with foreign coun¬ 
tries. This power is, however, checked by the require¬ 
ment that treaties must be ratified by two-thirds of the 
Senate. A President is wise, therefore, if he considers the 
Senate when he has treaties made. 

(5) The President receives ministers and ambassadors 
from foreign countries. By deciding which representatives 
he will receive, and which he will not, he may settle our 
entire relationship with foreign countries. It is often 
a very serious matter for a president to receive, or refuse 
to receive, an ambassador or minister. 

(6) He must act upon all bills sent to him by Congress. 
On many bills it is difficult to get a two-thirds vote, so 
by using his veto power the President can influence law¬ 
making very greatly. 

(7) The President sends messages to Congress at the 
beginning of each session and at any other time he wishes. 
In these messages, he recommends matters to Congress 


372 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

and, as the Constitution puts it, “gives them information 
of the state of the Union.” From the time of Thomas Jeffer¬ 
son, all the Presidents’ messages were sent to Congress and 
read there, until Wilson’s administration, when he de¬ 
livered them himself. The message undoubtedly receives 
better attention when the President reads it himself. 



PRESIDENT COOLIDGE AND HIS CABINET 

Front (left to right): Postmaster-General New; Secretary of War 
Weeks; Secretary of State Hughes; President Coolidge; Secretary 
of the Treasury Mellon; Attorney-General Stone; Secretary of the 
Navy Wilbur. 

Rear (left to right); Secretary of Labor Davis; Secretary of Agri - 
culture Wallace; Secretary of Commerce Hoover; Secretary of the 
Interior Work. 


(8) The President may call a special session of Congress 
whenever he thinks it is necessary. He may also call 
just the Senate, when treaties are to be ratified or some 
other such work is to be done. 

(9) The President may grant reprieves and pardons to 





The Cabinet 


378 


those who have broken federal laws. A reprieve is a post¬ 
ponement of a sentence; a pardon is a release from a sen¬ 
tence or from the further carrying out of a sentence. 

These are the powers and duties of the President. They 
have generally been executed very well, and Americans 
have cause to be proud of most of the Presidents we have 
had. 

Have any Americans been seriously considered for a third term in 
the presidency? Should a two-thirds vote of the Senate be necessary 
to ratify a treaty? What questions in regard to the President’s 
powers or duties were raised by President Wilson’s going to France 
to take part in peace-making? If the President is seriously ill, how 
would the duties of the office be looked after? Are there any occasions 
which would not be covered by the present laws about presidential 
succession? 

182. The Cabinet. — The greater part of the work of 
administering the national laws is done through the various 
departments, whose heads are collectively called the Cabinet. 
Nothing in the Constitution provides for a Cabinet, but 
in Article II, Section 2, it says, ‘‘he [the President] may 
require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officers 
in each of the executive departments, upon any subject 
relating to the duties of their respective offices.” But 
the Cabinet, as it exists now, has grown out of custom, and 
not of any law. The President appoints the members of 
his Cabinet, and the appointments must be approved by 
the Senate. 

There are now ten members in the Cabinet. These are, 
in order of their establishment of their offices, the Secretary 
of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, 
the Attorney-General—these four composed Washington’s 
Cabinet; the Secretary of the Navy, the Postmaster- 
General, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of 
Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce, and the Secretary 
of Labor. 

Each of these is at the head of a department, and has 


374 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

many subordinate officers under him. He has charge of 
all the affairs of his department, and is responsible to the 
President for its management. The Cabinet members 
also advise with the President on various matters. They 
do not always agree, and the President does not necessarily 
act on their advice, but at least he gets the opinion of 
different people on subjects of general interest and im¬ 
portance. 

183 . The Work of the Administrative Departments. — 
The department in the Cabinet which is usually mentioned 
first is the Department of State, with the Secretary of 
State, an under-secretary, and three assistant secretaries at 
its head. It has charge of foreign affairs, and deals with 
foreign ministers to this country and our own representa¬ 
tives in other countries. It frequently makes treaties, and 
conducts relations with foreign countries in other ways. 
The Department of State also keeps the originals of all 
laws and treaties, and has copies of them published. It 
has charge of the great seal used on many public docu¬ 
ments. 

The Secretary of the Treasury and three assistant secre¬ 
taries are at the head of the Treasury Department. In this 
department there are a great many officials. The Treas¬ 
urer of the United States has actual charge of the govern¬ 
ment’s money. The Comptroller of the Currency deals 
with national banks. The Register of the Treasury keeps 
records of all bonds and paper money issued by the govern¬ 
ment. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue is in charge 
of the collection of internal taxes. The Director of the 
Mint supervises the coining of money. The Superintendent 
of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing has charge of the 
printing of paper money and certificates. 

The Secret Service is also in the Department of the 
Treasury. This is because it was established originally 
to arrest and punish counterfeiters. The Public Health 
Service and the Coast Guard are also in this department, 


The Work of the Administrative Departments 37 5 

and there are many other subordinate officers such as clerks, 
customs officials, tax collectors, and the like. 

The Secretary of War has charge of the War Department , 
which deals with matters concerning the army, fortifica¬ 
tions, defences, and the like. The Secretary of the Navy 
heads the Navy Department and has similar duties in con¬ 
nection with the Navy. We have spoken about their work 
in the chapter on the protection of life and property. 



UNITED STATES MARINES IN EGYPT. 

The boys in our Marine Corps travel all over the world. What a 
remarkable background this picture has! 


The Attorney-General is at the head of the Department 
of Justice. This is perhaps not as well known as most of 
the other departments. It was not organized until 1870. 
And yet some officer of this department conducts every 
criminal case that is tried in a federal court. The Attorney- 
General and the Solicitor-General advise the President and 
other officers on legal matters. 

The Post Office Department is familiar to all of us. The 




376 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 


Postmaster-General is at the head of this department, and 
there are four assistant postmasters-general. The work 
is divided into several parts, with a chief at the head of 
each. There are 50,000 post offices in the country and a 
great many rural delivery routes. Most of those who hold 
offices in this department must take a Civil Service examina¬ 
tion. We have already mentioned the great work of send¬ 
ing all sorts of mail to every part of the world. 

The duties of the Department of the Interior are many 
and varied. About the best we can say is that all the work 
in handling home affairs not taken up by other depart¬ 
ments is done by the Department of the Interior. The 
Secretary of the Interior and two assistant secretaries are 
at its head, and it is divided into several bureaus, in charge 
of which are commissioners and directors. The Com¬ 
missioner of the General Land Office has charge of the 
public lands of the United States. The Commissioner of 
Pensions directs the payment of pensions. The Commis¬ 
sioner of Indian Affairs has charge of the Indians living on 
reservations in the country. The Commissioner of Patents 
grants patents to inventors. The Commissioner of Educa¬ 
tion collects and distributes information concerning the 
schools of the country, but has no authority over them. 
The Director of the Geological Survey has charge of the 
study of the geological formation of the country, and of the 
mineral deposits. The Director of the Reclamation Service 
directs the irrigation of desert lands. The Director of the 
Bureau of Mines has charge of the work of conserving the 
minerals of the country, and of making experiments in regard 
to the safe working of mines, and the like. 

The Department of Agriculture performs a remarkable 
service. At its head are the Secretary of Agriculture and 
an assistant secretary. The work of this department is 
divided among several bureaus. The Weather Bureau 
publishes the weather forecast for all parts of the country 
twice every day. The Bureau of Animal Industry has 


The Work of the Administrative Departments 377 

charge of the inspection of meat. The Bureau of Plant 
Industry takes up the improvement of crops and plants. 
The Bureau of Forestry is in charge of the national forests. 
It looks after forest fires, plants new trees, and the like. 
The Bureau of Entomology studies insects and the damage 
they do to crops, and the Bureau of Chemistry examines 
food and drugs, to see that they are pure. At various 
places in the country there are Experiment Stations, whose 



Copyright, Underwood & Underwood 
CLERKS AT WORK ON THE CENSUS. 


These workers are making use of punching machines to record 
the facts which the census enumerator learns when he visits people’s 
homes. 

work is to study agricultural conditions in that particular 
section, to find what crops will grow best there, and to try 
out new varieties of crops. 

The Department of Commerce has charge of many matters 
affecting the commerce and trade of the United States. Its 
work is done by bureaus. Most important of these is 
the Census Bureau, which takes a census of the population 




378 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

of the country every ten years. There are also the Bureaus 
of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Lighthouses, Fisheries, 
Navigation, and Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic 
Survey. 

The newest department is the Department of Labor. 
This looks into labor conditions throughout the country. 
In this department are the Bureau of Immigration, which 
has charge of the foreigners who come to this country, 
the Bureau of Naturalization, which directs the making 
of citizens out of foreigners, the Children’s Bureau, which 
deals with child labor and the interests of children generally, 
and the Women’s Bureau, which deals with similar problems 
of women’s welfare. 

184. Testing a Law. — There are two points of contact 
between the courts and the laws. After a law has been 
passed and is being enforced by the executive department, 
the courts try persons who are accused of breaking the 
law, and punish them if they are convicted. Then, if an 
accused person declares that the law which he is accused 
of breaking is unconstitutional, the courts decide whether 
this is true or not. The Supreme Court interprets the 
national Constitution, and the highest state courts inter¬ 
pret the constitutions of the various states. The courts 
will not act until after a law has been passed and is enforced. 
They refuse to say whether a measure is constitutional 
until a bill has gone through the long process of becoming 
a law, and the administrative department of the govern¬ 
ment has provided for its enforcement. The organization 
of our courts has been described in Section 152. 

Do you think the courts should give their opinion on bills when they 
are proposed? Why? Can the courts declare any law unconstitu¬ 
tional? 

185. Kinds of Laws That Congress May Make. — The 
Constitution sets forth very definitely the powers Congress 
may exercise. A long list of such powers appears in Article 


Kinds of Laws That Congress May Make 379 

I, Section 8, and several others are stated in other clauses. 
Putting together the powers of the President and of Con¬ 
gress will show us the full extent of the authority of the 
national government, except that some things are taken 
for granted because any government must be able to do 
them, such as adding new territory and the like. Perhaps 
it will help us to group the powers of Congress as follows: 

(1) Financial 

a Collect taxes, except on exported goods, 
b Borrow money; this is generally done by issuing 
bonds or certificates of indebtedness, 
c Coin money, 
d Regulate value of coins, 
e Punish counterfeiters. 

(2) Military 

a Provide and maintain an army and navy, 
b Authorize calling out state militia, 
c Declare war. 

d Grant letters of marque and reprisal. 1 

(3) Territorial 

a Make laws for territories, 
b Admit new states. 

c Govern the District of Columbia and any other 
possession or property of the United States. 

(4) Commercial 

a Regulate interstate commerce, 
b Regulate foreign commerce, 
c Establish post offices and post roads, 
d Provide for granting patents and copyrights, 
e Fix standards of weights and measures, 
f Provide for cases of bankruptcy. 

iThis means to authorize privateering in war time. Civilized countries do not do this 
any more 


380 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 


(5) Political 

a Provide for naturalization of aliens, 
b Punish treason and piracy, 
c Organize courts below the Supreme Court, 
d Propose amendments to Constitution (by a 
two-thirds vote). 

(6) General 

Pass laws necessary for carrying out the other 
powers. 

In the early days of our Constitution a big argument 
arose over this point: Should the national government 
do anything except the things specially mentioned in the 
Constitution? Thomas Jefferson and his followers said, 
No; Congress may not charter a bank, for example, 
because the Constitution does not say that Congress may 
grant charters to corporations. Alexander Hamilton and 
his friends said, Yes; if a bank will help the government in 
doing any of the things which are definitely mentioned, 
Congress has a perfect right to organize it. Jefferson’s 
theory was called strict construction, and Hamilton’s 
loose or broad construction. Very fortunately Hamil¬ 
ton’s views prevailed. During the thirty-four years when 
John Marshall was Chief Justice, the Supreme Court 
rendered many decisions in support of this theory. It 
became definitely established, so that today nobody would 
question it. 

Go over a list of the laws passed by the last Congress or some other, 
and see which of the particular powers mentioned above would justify 
each of them. 

186. Laws That Our Constitution Forbids. — The makers 
of the Constitution, however, had no intention of letting 
either the national government or the state governments 
do everything they pleased. Therefore we find mention 
of several powers which have been exercised by the govern- 


Laws That Our Constitution Forbids 381 

ments of other countries at some time or other, but which 
our government, state or national, is forbidden to use. 
Others are definitely assigned to the national govern¬ 
ment or forbidden to the state governments. Those 
which are not given to the national government or 
forbidden to the state or to both, are understood to belong 
to the states unless the constitutions of the states 
themselves forbid them. Let us see how the powers are 
distributed. 

I Powers forbidden to 

both national and 
state governments. 

1 Bills of attainder 1 

2 Ex post facto 
laws 2 

Why is each of these unfair? 

3 Granting of titles 
of nobility 

4 Toleration of 
slavery 

II Powers not granted 

to national govern¬ 
ment; therefore exercised wholly or chiefly by the 
states 

(1) Regulation of voting (except for Amendments 

XV and XIX) 

(2) Education 

(3) Public health 

(4) Local government 

(5) Care of the unfortunate. 



iA bill of attainder is an act passed by a law-making body which would deprive a per¬ 
son of his life or property without giving him a trial in court. 

2 An ex post facto law is one which would apply to acts done before the law was 








382 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

III Powers forbidden to state governments, and either 
granted or not forbidden to the national government 
a Treaties and alliances 
b Letters of marque and reprisal 
c Coinage of money 
d Issuing bills of credit (paper money) 
e Collecting duties on imports 
f Regulation of foreign or interstate commerce 
g Carrying on war unless invaded 
h Impairing obligation of contracts (that is, inter¬ 
fering with the carrying out of them) 
i Maintenance of army and navy, except with 
permission of Congress 

Several other powers, if exercised at all by the national 
government, could not very well be carried on by the 
states, such as regulating immigration and naturalization, 
conducting a postal system, and the like. 

Perhaps it will help to put some of this relation of powers 
in the form of a diagram. Suppose the outside circle 
contains all the powers that have ever been exercised by 
any government. The second largest circle will contain 
the powers permitted to governments in this country, 
and the outer ring will show powers forbidden under our 
Constitution. The heavy lined circle is divided into two 
parts, showing some powers exercised by state govern¬ 
ments and others by the nation. Inside of this is the circle 
of concurrent powers—that is, those which are possessed 
by both state and national governments. There are not 
many of these but some are very important. 

187. Law-Making in States. — Every state has its law¬ 
making body. In many states this is called the General 
Assembly. In others it is called simply the Legislature , 
but in Massachusetts and New Hampshire it is the General 
Court. It is composed of two houses, most often called 
the Senate and the House of Representatives, though 


Law-Making in States 


383 


sometimes, as in New York, the “lower” house is called the 
Assembly. The “upper” house is much smaller than the 
“lower.” The states are divided into senatorial and repre¬ 
sentative districts, the former being the larger. Each dis¬ 
trict elects at least one senator or representative. The age 
requirement is higher for senators than for representatives. 

Law-making in the states is very much the same as in the 



HALL OF THE PENNSYLVANIA HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 
One branch of Pennsylvania’s law-makers meets in this beautiful 
room. 


national Congress. A bill must pass both houses separately, 
and can be vetoed by the governor, except in North Carolina 
and Rhode Island. Bills are referred to committees, as in 
Congress, but the committees in the lower house are ap¬ 
pointed by the Speaker, not elected as in Congress, and in 
the Senate they are sometimes appointed by the presiding 
officer, who is often the lieutenant-governor of the state. The 








384 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

powers of the legislature are very extensive. It may make 
laws about anything whatever that concerns the citizens 
of the state, except the particular matters which it is for¬ 
bidden to deal with by the national or state Constitution. 

188. Administering State Laws. — The states have, 
necessarily, their officers to administer the laws. The chief 
executive is the Governor . His powers and duties cor¬ 
respond to a great extent to those of the President in the 
Rational government, but of course he has nothing to say 
about foreign affairs. He may be elected for one, two, or 
four years, according to the laws of the state. He appoints 
many other executive officers. 

Most states have a Lieutenant-governor, who corresponds 
to the vice-president. He usually presides over the state 
senate. The Secretary of State or, in Pennsylvania and 
Massachusetts, the Secretary of the Commonwealth, keeps 
the official records and papers of the governor and the 
legislature. The Auditor , or in some states the Auditor- 
General or Comptroller, sees that money is taken from the 
state treasury only after appropriations have been made 
by law. The Treasurer is in charge of the actual handling 
of the state money. The Attorney-General is the legal 
adviser to the Governor and other state officials. The 
Adjutant-General has duties in connection with the National 
Guard. There are also the Superintendent or Commissioner 
of Education or of Public Instruction, a Commissioner of 
Insurance, a Commissioner or Secretary of Agriculture, and 
other officers. The heads of the various departments of 
the state do not meet as a Cabinet. 

The states usually have a supreme court, or a court 
corresponding to it called by a different name (§152). 
There is also a system of lower courts in every state. These 
courts deal with people who are accused of breaking state 
laws. They also interpret the state constitutions, and 
determine whether state laws are constitutional. In this 
matter, the supreme court of the state has the final decision. 



Maintaining the Nation’s Authority 385 

A decision involving a state law can not be appealed from 
the state to the federal courts unless some one claims that 
the law is contrary to the national Constitution or a na¬ 
tional law. The state courts can not declare a national 
law unconstitutional. 

Find out about the government of your own state. What is the 
law-making body called? the two houses? the highest court? Who 
are the governor and other high executive officers? Who represents 
your neighborhood in the legislature? 



THE BATTLESHIP “CONNECTICUT”. 


189. Maintaining the Nation’s Authority. — There is a 
question among people today as to whether it is the duty 
of local officers, such as policemen and sheriffs, to enforce 
national laws. Some people declare that the federal 
authorities should enforce federal laws; others, that since 
the nation is supreme it is the duty of all public officers 
to see that the national laws are enforced. State and na¬ 
tional officers often cooperate, combining forces for some 
definite purpose in protecting the public health or encour¬ 
aging education, the building of good roads or some other 




386 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

worthy object. In many ways the two work in harmony, 
and they ought to do so. 

But, whether it is the duty of local officers to enforce 
national laws or not, one thing is certain. When the 
authority of a state and that of a nation conflict, the state 
must give way to the nation, for the Constitution says 
that not only its own provisions, but all United States laws 
and treaties made in accordance with it, shall be the “su¬ 
preme law of the land.” Every state and local government 
is subordinate to it. All officers must take an oath to sup¬ 
port the Constitution of the United States. The national 
government, in return, assures every state a republican 
form of government, and protection from invasion. The 
state, of course, also helps itself in this matter. 

What is your opinion on the duty of local officers in enforcing na¬ 
tional laws? Apply it to Prohibition. Do you think there are any 
matters in which national and state authority conflict? 

190. Local Law - Making. — We have explained the 
subdivisions of states and why we have them (§170). Let 
us now consider how local laws are made. The law-making 
body of cities is usually called the council , or, if it is com¬ 
posed of two houses, they are the common council , which is 
the larger, and the aldermen, or select council. This body 
makes the city ordinances. Their terms vary in different 
states. The mayor is the chief executive of the city. He 
may veto ordinances passed by the council. He also ap¬ 
points other administrative officers, but the council must 
confirm these appointments. 

The legislative body of a borough is a small council, elected 
by the people. It enacts ordinances for the government of 
the borough, and it may levy taxes and borrow money. 
Boroughs are governed with a view to their becoming 
cities at some time, although they do not always do this. 
In states like New York, which have incorporated villages, 
the trustees act much as the council in cities and boroughs. 


Local Law-Making 


387 


In New England, the “town” is a political organization. 
Here it is distinguished from the town or township in 
other states, by the town meeting. This is held regularly 
once a year, although special meetings may be called. 
All the voters may attend these meetings and act on all 
matters in which the town is concerned. Townships 
in other states do not have the town meeting except in some 
of the towns in New York. In New England, the voters 
elect selectmen who are the most important officers. They 
correspond to the supervisors in some other states. Road 
commissioners and school directors also have legislative as 
well as executive power. The terms of local officers are 
usually shorter in New England than in other states, most 
of them being elected for a year at a time. 

The chief officials in the county are usually called com¬ 
missioners. They vary in number, and have charge of most 
of the business of the county, such as fixing the county 
tax rate, and keeping up the highways. In New York 
and Michigan, the counties are governed by a board of 
supervisors, composed of one member from each township. 

How is your county governed? What are the names of the highest 
officers? How do they obtain their office? What is the length of 
their term? 

In every community, education is provided for. For 
this purpose school districts are formed, and in each of 
these we find a board of directors or trustees, which is the 
law-making body for school affairs. It makes rules for the 
schools, looks after the school property, and is legally 
in charge of the business of the schools. School boards 
usually elect a superintendent, who acts as the general 
manager for the schools. He may attend meetings of 
the board, plan the program of the schools, and do other 
things of the kind. 

Review what you have learned about the school board which has 
authority over your school, and the county and state arrangements 
for education. 


388 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

191. Administering Local Laws. — In every subdivision 
of government we find officers whose duty is to carry out 
the laws. In the city, the mayor is the chief executive. 
There are many other administrative officials. The work 
of the city is usually divided among various departments 
and bureaus, with a director at the head of each. The 
departments are generally public works, public safety, health, 
charities, and the like, which are subdivided for the purpose 



ALL SORTS OF SHIPS IN BOSTON HARBOR. 

The harbor master is megaphoning his orders from the deck of a 
police boat. 

of carrying on the work. Other officers are the treasurer , 
controller, solicitor, and board of education. 

What are the departments of your city or of cities with which you 
are acquainted? What are the duties of each department? 

Some cities have adopted the commission form of govern¬ 
ment. The voters in the city elect a small body, or com¬ 
mission, perhaps composed of five men, who act as both 





Administering Local Laws 389 

legislators and executives. As a body they make the laws 
or ordinances and each one is the head of an administrative 
department. Those who advocate this plan declare that 
it avoids waste of time and money, and makes it possible 
to get things done more efficiently. A few persons are 
entirely responsible for the conduct of the city’s affairs and 
people know where to put the credit or blame for the way 
things are done. 

In the city manager plan, which has been taken up by 
Dayton, Cleveland, and many smaller places, the council 
or commission elects one man as city manager to take charge 
of all the city affairs, except probably the schools, and gives 
him as much power as he needs to do the work efficiently. 
Where this plan has been tried it has usually worked well. 
It carries the idea of centralizing power and responsibility 
still further than does the commission form; for it makes 
one man responsible for managing a city’s business, just as 
the board of directors of a great corporation might elect 
a general manager. After all, the management of a city is 
simply the conducting of a big public business. It would be 
well if we thought of it more often in that way. This plan 
will probably be adopted more generally as time goes on. 

In Pennsylvania we find at the head of the executive 
branch of the borough a chief burgess. In New York the 
corresponding officer in a village is called the president . 
Other administrative officers of the borough or village may 
be the treasurer, clerk, police marshal, fire marshal, tax 
assessor, street commissioner, and engineer. Boroughs 
and villages may also have boards of health, and various 
commissions to carry on the work. 

We have already mentioned the officers of the town or 
township: the commissioners or supervisors, who are the 
highest officials, and the treasurer, assessor, auditors, 
constables, and the like. These officers carry out the laws 
or ordinances, and form the executive branch of the govern¬ 
ment. 


390 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 


Outside of New England the county is the most import¬ 
ant subdivision of the state. It is important because a great 
part of the administration of state laws rests upon it. Its 
officers understand its own needs better than the state 
officers could, and through the county the state government 
can serve the people in every section. 

Among the many executive county officials whom we 
find under various names in the different states are the 
following: the commissioners or supervisors, whose duties 
are executive as well as legislative (§191); an officer who 
keeps the records of titles to property, such as deeds and 
mortgages, and may be called the recorder of deeds or the 
county clerk; an officer who attends to the carrying out 
of wills or the distribution of property of persons who died 
without making a will—in New York this officer is called a 
surrogate, in some other states the register of wills; a coroner, 
who looks into the circumstances of sudden or accidental 
deaths; a district attorney or state’s attorney, who prose¬ 
cutes persons accused of violating the state laws; a treasurer, 
who looks after the public money and usually collects the 
taxes; a sheriff, who is responsible for keeping order in a 
county; a controller or a board of auditors, who inspect the ac¬ 
counts of the county. There may also be a superintendent of 
schools and perhaps directors of the poor, besides county judges, 
jury commissioners, clerks of courts, and perhaps many other 
officials, depending on the laws of each state or on the size 
of the county. Most of these officers are chosen by popular 
vote. 

Find out the special features of local government in your state, 
city, town or township, borough or village, and county. 

192. Law-Making by the People. —There has been in 
recent years a tendency in the United States to get law¬ 
making more directly in the hands of the people. The 
New England town meeting is a good example of direct 
legislation, as it is often called, for here all the people 


391 


Law-Making by the People 

may take an actual part in law-making. But this could 
not be conducted on a very large scale. In fact, it often 
happens that this supposed “democracy” is somewhat of a 
joke, for in some towns the voters do not attend the town 
meetings in very great numbers, and besides there would be 
no place in town large enough to hold them all if they did 
turn out. So two other ways of getting direct legislation 


PROPOSED BY INITIATIVE PETITION 


Initiated by Roosevelt Bird Refuge Association: President, John Gill, 
Third and Alder Streets, Portland, Oregon; First Vice-President, 
W. S. Raker, Northwestern Bank Building, Portland, Oregon; Sec¬ 
ond Vice-President, Willard A. Eliot, 1011 Thurman Street, Portland, 
Oregon; Secretary-Treasurer, William L. Finley, 651 E. Madison 
Street, Portland, Oregon; Executive Committee, J. C. Ainsworth, 
U. S. National Bank Building, Portland, Oregon; James E. Brockway, 
Portland, Oregon; J, D. Brown, Portland^ Oregon; Ida B, Callahan, 
563 Monroe Street, Corvallis, Oregon; Therese M. eastner, Hood 
River, Oregon; W. 0. Hawley, Salem, Oregon; John A. Keating, 
care of Lumberman's Building, Portland, Oregon; Stephen A. Lowell, 
Pendleton, Oregon; Henry E. McGinn, 507 Oregonian Building, Port¬ 
land, Oregon; T. Gilbert Pearson, 1074 Broadway, New York, N. Y.; 
Richard W. Price, care of Oregon Hotelmen's Association, Portland, 
Oregon; G. Putnam, Salem, Oregon; Robert W. Sawyer, Bend, Ore¬ 
gon; C. E; Spence, Oregon City, Oregon; W. T. Sumner, 574 Elm 
Street, Portland, Oregon; H. B. Van Duzer, care of Chamber of 
Commerce, Portland, Oregon; Emma J. Welty, care of Oregon Audu¬ 
bon' Society, Portland; Oregon.—ROOSEVELT BIRD REFUGE 
MEASURE—Purpose: To create a refuge for the native waterfowl 
of Oregon, and in memory of the late Theodore Roosevelt request 
the national government to designate such refuge Roosevelt Bird 
Refuge, by ceding and conveying to the United States the right, 
title, claim and jurisdiction possessed by the State of Oregon in lands 
within the exterior boundaries of and in and to the waters within 
Malheur Lake Reservation in Harney county, as set apart by execu¬ 
tive order issued by President Roosevelt in 1908, for the use of the 
Department of Agriculture as a breeding ground for wild birds. 


Vote YES or NO 

316 

Yes. 


317 

No. 




AN EXAMPLE OF THE REFERENDUM. 

The people whose names appear here secured the necessary number 
of signers to an “initiative” petition for a law for the purpose men¬ 
tioned. Now the voters of Oregon are asked to vote “Yes” or 
“No” with reference to the passage of the law which the petition 
asks for. 











392 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 


by the people have been adopted in many states of this 
country. 

In such states, when the people wish to have a law passed, 
or an amendment made to their constitution, and the legisla¬ 
ture will not, or does not, for any reason, act on it, they 
can draw up a petition, signed by a certain per cent of 
the voters, demanding that the legislature formulate a bill. 
Sometimes the law permits the measure itself to be drawn 
up by the petitioners. This is called the initiative. 

Still more common is the process by which a measure may 
be submitted to popular vote before it becomes a law. 
This is called the referendum. Sometimes the law re¬ 
garding the initiative petition is so arranged that it auto¬ 
matically calls for a referendum on the matter in question. 
Sometimes a petition calling for a referendum may be 
drawn after a bill has been passed by the law-making body, 
and then the bill will not go into effect unless the referendum 
shows that a majority of the voters favor it. 

These two features of direct legislation often go hand in 
hand. The initiative is of little value without the referen¬ 
dum, except that it may bring the desires of the people 
up before the law-making body. But we often find the 
referendum used without the initiative, particularly for 
amendments to state constitutions and for important laws. 
In Pennsylvania, for example, the state constitution re¬ 
quires that amendments to it must be submitted to a popu¬ 
lar vote, but does not provide for the use of the referendum 
for any other purpose in the state, except when local govern¬ 
ments wish to borrow money in large amounts by issuing 
bonds. 

We should avoid abusing the initiative and referendum. 
There is not much use for a legislature if the people 
are going to vote directly on everything. In some states 
the percentage of voters who may use the initiative 
is so low that it is possible for a very few people to force 
a whole state to act on a measure which the people do not 


Removing Unworthy Officials 393 

understand and care nothing about. The initiative and 
referendum surely need to be safeguarded against foolish 
and unnecessary use. But they may be of great value 
in making legislatures do what the people want, and in 
finding out the opinion of all the voters who have any 
opinion at all. So, at the same time, they should be easy 
enough to use that the people can exercise control over 
important policies whenever their law-makers either are 
not sure what are the people’s desires or actually go con¬ 
trary to them. 

Do you have either or both the initiative and the referendum in 
your state? If so, to what extent? How are they used? Do you 
consider them desirable? 

193. Removing Unworthy Officials.—To make good 
laws and enforce them after they are made, we must have 
officials who are honest and intelligent. Unfortunately 
we sometimes find that we have an unworthy person in 
some public office. There are several means of removing 
such persons, rather than waiting till it is time to select 
their successors. 

If he has been appointed by the President, the Governor, 
or the Mayor, or any other administrative officer, he may 
in most cases be removed by the persons who appointed 
him—that is, except judges, who may not be removed in 
this way. Of course, appointed officers are sometimes 
removed for other reasons than because they are unworthy 
or inefficient. 

Occasionally a method known as impeachment is used 
in removing unfit officials. In the national government, 
impeachment charges may be drawn up in the House of 
Representatives against any federal administrative officer 
or judge. The Senate conducts the trial of the impeached 
officer, and if two-thirds of the senators believe he is guilty, 
he is convicted and loses his office. The Senate may also 
disqualify him from holding any other office under the 


394 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 


United States. Impeachment of state officers is also pro¬ 
vided for in state constitutions. This method is not often 
used, and many impeached officers have not been convicted. 
It is the only way to remove federal judges. 

Have any Presidents been impeached? Have any been convicted? 
Do you know of any other cases of impeachment? 

Some states and cities use another means for removing 
unworthy officials. This is the recall. This is done by 
means of a petition signed by a certain number of voters, 
asking for a special election to decide whether a person 
shall be put out of office. Usually, in such elections 
there are other candidates for the office, and the one having 
the highest vote goes in, in case the vote goes against the 
person holding the office. Sometimes the state has laws 
providing for filling such a vacancy, and the vote simply 
is an expression of the people’s opinion as to whether the 
person in office should serve out his term. For instance, 
if the governor should be recalled, the lieutenant-governor 
might automatically take his place. 

Unworthy officials are kept out of many offices by the 
civil service laws. In order to pass an examination, they 
have to be qualified, in some measure at least, for the posi¬ 
tion. It is sometimes asserted that under the civil service 
laws it is not easy to get rid of an officer who is too old 
or careless to do good work. But any officer in the “classi¬ 
fied service” can be removed if he is given a hearing and 
shown to be dishonest or otherwise guilty of improper 
conduct. Surely it is better that a few slow or lazy people 
shall be kept as clerks in some government office than that 
all of them, no matter how good they are, shall be always in 
danger of losing their jobs just because their political opin¬ 
ions agree with those of the party which loses an election. 

Have any officials in your state been removed from office? For 
what reason? What recall provisions, if any, do you have? 

194. Getting Good Government. — What must be done 


Getting Good Government 395 

to make our government good? For one thing, there must 
be cooperation between those who make the laws and 
those who enforce them, and they must each do all they 
can to improve the government. 

There can be too much law-making. If all the bills 
which come up before Congress or the legislatures at each 
session were passed, we should be swamped with unneces¬ 
sary laws. The law-making bodies of our country have 
to contend with this 
flood of bills, and it is 
as much their duty to 
see that no harmful or 
valueless law is passed, 
as to pass laws that are 
good. 

Besides, it is often 
worse than useless to 
pass laws which can not 
or will not be enforced 
after their passage. 

Sometimes reforms are 
best brought about by 
slow but steady chang¬ 
es in people’s habits, 
rather than by laws 
passed before the ma¬ 
jority want them. It 
is not the making of a law, but its enforcement, that brings 
about changes and improvements. 

There is also the problem of getting good men to serve. We 
need men in office who have high standards and want public 
matters to be conducted in the right way. But it is difficult to 
get such men, especially in offices of lesser importance. Men 
who would make good officials are often engrossed in their 
business, and do not feel that they can give their time. Often, 
too, the salary of officials is not a sufficient inducement. 



THE MUNICIPAL BUILDING, 
NEW YORK CITY. 




396 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

Then, too, desirable men frequently are not willing to push 
themselves forward in order to get offices. The attitude 
of the public at large is in a great measure responsible for 
this. People say things about a person who is running 
for office, or who is in office, that they would not think of 
saying about him in private life. A person often risks his 
reputation in a political campaign, and many good men will 
not run this risk. On the other hand, people should be 
willing to make some sacrifice in order to serve their com¬ 
munity and their country. But while it is right that we 
should demand high standards in our public officers, it is 
most unjust for us, merely because a person is an office¬ 
holder, to believe and repeat every piece of gossip and 
scandal that we hear about him, whether he belongs to our 
party or the other one. 

After all, the individual—you or I or John Smith—is 
responsible for good government in a very real sense. We 
should respect the public offices of our government, and 
those who hold them, until their unworthiness is proved. 
We should vote only for such persons as we believe will do 
their very best if elected. 

We should obey the laws that exist, without regard to our 
own opinion in the matter. Sometimes, indeed, the best 
way to prove that a law is bad is to enforce it strictly upon 
everybody alike. And it may be our duty to report other 
citizens who break the law. This does not mean that 
every person should constitute himself a policeman or a 
private detective. But if you know that a person is violat¬ 
ing a law, and has not been caught, and that his wrong-doing 
is harming others or may do so, very likely you should let 
the authorities know about it. By our attitude toward 
law and government, we can influence others to do either 
right or wrong. 

Make a list of good laws which can not be thoroughly enforced 
unless cftizens cooperate with the officials 


Questions 


397 


QUESTIONS 

Why do we need laws? What is a law? What is the difference 
between a law and a constitution? What is an “unwritten law?” 
How do laws originate? How may sentiment be aroused for the 
making of laws? What part do our chief executors have in our law¬ 
making? Define lobbying and log-rolling. 

How is our national law-making body organized? Why does it 
have two houses? Who are the presiding officers? What special 
powers does either house have that the other does not? Define ap¬ 
portionment, gerrymander , congressman-at-large. When are elections 
to Congress held and how often? When does Congress meet? What 
special privileges do Congressmen have? What is their compensation? 

What part do committees play in law-making? Trace the steps by 
which a bill is passed. Define quorum , conference committee , veto, 
filibuster. 

Explain the importance of law enforcement. What do the Presi¬ 
dent and the courts have to do with law enforcement? Explain the 
work of the Interstate Commerce Commission; the Civil Service Com' 
mission; the Federal Trade Commission. 

What in general is the President’s position in the government? 
What are the requirements of the office? In case of a vacancy in the 
office, who succeeds? Mention the powers and duties of the Presi¬ 
dent. For which of these must he have the approval of the Senate? 

Name the offices which are included in the Cabinet. What in 
general are the Cabinet’s duties? What is the title of the official at 
the head of each cabinet department? State briefly the work of each 
department. Mention some important subordinate officers in the 
Treasury Department; in the Department of the Interior; in the 
Department of Agriculture; in the Department of Commerce; in the 
Department of Labor. 

How do the courts act in interpreting a law? What is their con¬ 
nection with law enforcement? 

Under what heads may the powers of the law-making departments 
be grouped? List the special powers that belong under each special 
heading. Explain the argument over strict and loose construction 
of the constitution. D^-aw a diagram to show the extent of the power 
of the state and of the national law-making departments. Mention 
the special powers you will include in each part of your diagram. De¬ 
fine concurrent powers. 

By what bodies are the laws made in the states? Compare law¬ 
making in the states and in the national government. Mention the 
principal state officers whose duties are to administer the laws. What 
do the state courts have to do with law enforcement? How far must 


398 Law-Making and Law-Enforcing 

the state and local governments respect the national authority? How 
far is it their duty to enforce national laws? 

By whom are laws made in cities? In other local governments? 
Explain the town meeting. Mention the principal officers of county 
government. Who are the chief executive officials in local govern¬ 
ments? By whom are the laws carried out in city governments? 
Explain the commission form of government in cities; the city mana¬ 
ger plan. 

What is direct legislation? Explain the initiative and the referendum. 
To what extent are they in use? 

How may unworthy officials be removed? Define impeachment; 
recall. What are good reasons for removing public officials? Can 
there be too much law-making? Why is it sometimes difficult to get 
good men to hold office? How far are individual citizens responsible 
for good government? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

A Visit to the City Council (or other local law-making bodies). 

Our State Legislature. 

Our Government. 

Our State Capitol. 

The National Capitol. 

The United States Senators from Our State. 

The Congressman from Our District. 

Our President. 

Resolved, that the two-term tradition for the President is foolish. 

The Men Who Compose Our President’s Cabinet. 

Resolved, that our community should adopt the city manager form 
of government (or the commission form). 

A Session of the State Legislature or Congress. (If there is time the 
class may consider itself the Legislature or Congress and take up sev¬ 
eral pieces of legislation. If this is done, have standing committees ap¬ 
pointed as in actual government. The teacher can be governor or 
president.) 

The Anarchist and How His Theories Work. 

Resolved, that Cabinet officers should have the right to discuss the 
questions in Congress in which t-iey are concerned. 

A Town Meeting. 

Resolved, that the initiative and referendum should be adopted in 
our state. 

Famous Cases of Impeachment. 

Resolved, that it is the duty of every individual to be a candidate 
for office if he is requested to do so. 


CHAPTER XIII 


VOTING 


Our government is built upon the vote. — Beecher. 


195. Why Voting Is Important. — We must remember 
that the privileges we enjoy as citizens of the United States 
bring certain duties with them. One of these is voting. 
Voting is not a right, as some people seem to think, except 
in the sense that all who meet certain conditions are 
entitled to it. It is a privilege offered to those who are 
thought fit to exercise it, and it is the duty of such people 
to take advantage of the opportunity. 

Because each person has only one vote, he must not be 
careless or indifferent about casting it. What a condition 
we should be in if everybody were like that! Every vote 
goes to make up the whole, and one vote may make a 
great deal of difference. Local officers have often been 
elected by a margin of one or two votes, and once even the 
governor of a state was chosen by a majority of one vote 
over his opponent. 

It is by means of this “franchise,” as it is called, that the 
people take part in the government. We have said that 
to give every individual an actual part in making the laws 
would be a physical impossibility in a country as large as 
the United States. But every voter has a voice in choosing 
officers to act for the people, and to represent them in the 
government. If a person stands for certain principles 
he may vote for some one who has the same views. Vir¬ 
tually all the law-making officials mentioned in the last 
399 




400 


Voting 


chapter, many of the most important executive officers, and 
a considerable number of the judicial officers, are chosen 
by popular vote. It may not always be true that “the 
voice of the people is the voice of God,” but when God 
does speak to the world, he uses men and women to utter 
his message. Voting may sometimes be a very solemn 
thing, especially when a policy that concerns the welfare of 
our whole country or the whole world is up for us to consider. 

Is the majority always right? If the right seems to be defeated 
what are we to do about it? 

196. Who May Vote. — The qualifications of voters 
vary greatly in the states. Be sure to understand, by 
the way, that the right to vote in a state is determined 
by the state itself, except that the national Constitution 
forbids the states to deny the vote, on account of race or sex, 
to any citizen who has reached the age of twenty-one. 
The age requirement—twenty-one years—is the same all 
over the United States, and most states require citizenship 
and residence in the state for a certain length of time. 
A few states permit aliens to vote who have announced 
their intention of becoming American citizens. In some 
states the payment of taxes is necessary, and a few require 
a reading and writing test. The old requirement of 
property-holding is not an essential any longer, but in the 
early days it was almost universal. 

For a long time only men were permitted to vote, and 
when able women like Susan B. Anthony and Lucy Stone 
undertook to tell the public that this restriction was unfair, 
people made fun of them and even abused them. In 1869 
Wyoming Territory gave women the ballot, and a number 
of other states, mostly in the West, later did the same. 
After a long struggle, the Nineteenth Amendment to the 
national Constitution was adopted in 1920. Then all 
the states had to open the polls to men and women on 
equal terms. 


Voting by Ballot 


401 



Is there any sound reason why women should not vote? Why do 
you suppose women first gained the franchise in the West? 

In many states, especially in the cities, voters are re¬ 
quired to register, that is, to tell their names and various 
characteristics before a registration board, a certain length 
of time before the election. This is for the purpose of 
identification, so that no person may vote more than once f 
and no person may vote on another’s name. 


Copyright, International 

REGISTERING VOTERS. 

Voters must answer numerous questions to identify them and 
then sign their names. The women appear to be greatly interested 
in qualifying themselves to vote. 


What are the requirements for a voter in your state? Do you 
think they should be changed? 

197. Voting by Ballot. — Formerly voting was done 
very openly. People cast their vote viva voce, or by word 
of mouth. This encouraged bribery, for the briber could 
be sure that the person whom he had bought would vote 






402 Voting 

in accordance with the bargain, and good people were 
sometimes afraid to vote according to their convictions. 
The first step toward the betterment of these conditions 
was the party ballot. Each party supplied its own ballots 
to the people. But this was not much of an improvement, 
for you could usually distinguish one party’s ballots from 
another’s, and know which one a voter dropped in the box. 
Ballot-box “stuffing” was easy, too. 

Now we have almost everywhere the secret ballot. 
That is, a person can go into a booth, mark his ballot, 
fold it, and put it into the ballot-box without anybody’s 
knowing how he has voted. This method encourages 
free thinking and voting. 

The elections are carried on by election boards, made up 
of perhaps five members, such as a judge, two inspectors, 
and two clerks. This board gives ballots to those who are 
entitled to them, and then they count the votes after the 
polls close. The polls are open from seven in the morning 
to seven at night, or from sunrise to sunset, or some other 
fixed period, according to the laws of the state. If the 
voting system of our country is to be successful, the election 
boards must be honest. People ought to be more careful 
than they sometimes are about selecting these officers. When 
a town or city is large, it is divided into voting districts, and 
a separate board conducts the election in each district. 

Find out what the customs and laws of your state are in regard to 
conducting elections. Is there ever any difficulty in getting the 
right kind of election boards? 

Make a map of your town or ward or city, showing its divisions into 
election districts and the location of the different polling places. 

198. Forms of Ballots. — Beginning with 1890, the 
states adopted the form of voting used in Australia, and 
called therefore the Australian ballot . Under this system 
each ballot has on it the names of every candidate at a 
general election, and is supplied by the state or county 
officials. 


Forms of Ballots 


403 


FIRST COLUMN 

This Column Is for Straight 
Party Votes 

| REPUBLICAN | | 

2 DEMOCRATIC I 


SOCIALIST 



PROTHONOTARY 

(Voto for One) 

John Vogt. 

Republican 


Prohibition 

■=- 

Janies A. Tlernan, . Democratic 

E. Guenther, v Socialist 




CLERK OF COURTS 
(Voto for One-) 


John Douglas, Jr., 

Republican 

1 

Prohibition 

1 

Frank C. Beatty. Democratic 

J 

F» 'A. Silvia, Socialist 

1 



COUNTY TREASURER 

(Voto for Ono) 

Joseph G. Armstrong. Republican 


E. D. SUmbangh, Democratic 


Fred Thompson, Socialist 

John H. Shenkel. Prohibition 



COUNTY CONTROLLER 
(Voto for One) 

P. Moore, 

Republican 


Prohibition 


Bradley McK. Burns, 

Democratic 


VJm. J. Vhn Essen, 

Socialist 




COUNTY COMMISSIONER 

(Vote for Two) 

Robert S. Cain, 

Republican 

1 

Addison C. Gumbert, 

Republican 

— 

John J. Gallagher. 

Democratic 


James Houlahen, 

Democratic 


William W. Nooning. 

Socialist 


W. J. Wright. 

Socialist 


Samuel D. Foster, 

Prohibition 



RECORDER OF DEEDS 
(Vote for One) 


John D. Graham. 

Republican 


Michael L. Flynn, 

Democratic 


George A. Coleman. 

Socialist 


Harold E. Flegal, 

Prohibition 






CONSTABLE 
(Voto for One) 

Richard R. Howell, 

Republican 


Detaocratic 


J. A. Day, 

Socialist 


William Cuthbcrt, 

Prohibition 




SCHOOL VISITOR 
(Vote for Three) 


John B. Barbour, 

Republican 

p 

A. L. Schultz, 

Republican 

pi 

Harry O. Danner, 

Republican 


J. W. Lowthcr, 

Democratic 


J. McShane, 

Democratic 


R. Blackwell, 

Democratic 



JUDGE OF ELECTION 
(VoW for One) 


Joseph R. Conrad, Republican 


INSPECTOR OF ELECTION 

(Vote for One) 

Joseph M. Draw Republican 


William McClelland, Democratic 



PART OF A PENNSYLVANIA BALLOT. 

A voter who wants to vote for all the candidates of one party may 
do so by making a cross opposite the name of his party in the first 
column. If he does not wish to vote a “straight” ticket, he will let 
the first column alone, but will make a cross opposite the names of 
the individual candidates whom he prefers. 


















































































































404 


Voting 


The forms of ballots in the different states vary. On 
some, the names of the candidates for each party are put 
together in a column. Often there is a “party square” 
or circle, and by making a cross in this place, one can vote 
for all the candidates of one party. On the Massachusetts 
ballot , all candidates for a certain office are grouped together 
in alphabetical order, and there is no “party square,” 
but each candidate must be voted for separately. Other 
states besides Massachusetts have adopted this ballot. 
In many of the cities of New York State, voting machines 
are used instead of ballots. 

Why do party politicians favor having a “party square” on the 
ballot, and political reformers usually oppose it? 

199. How Names Are Put on the Ballot. — There are 
several ways in which a person may become a candidate 
for an office. For a long time, nominations for local offices 
were made by means of a caucus, which is a meeting of 
party members within a certain district. For county 
or state officers or for Congress, nominations were formerly 
made by a convention, which was usually composed of 
members chosen by local caucuses or by some other method. 
But since these meetings were composed of comparatively 
few men, they often did not really represent the sentiment 
and desires of the people. 

Therefore what is known as the direct primary has been 
adopted in most of the states. This is a system by which 
any voter is allowed to express his opinion in regard to the 
candidates who shall be nominated by his party. Such 
an election is held a few weeks or months before the final 
election, and is conducted by the same officers. In this 
plan, any person who wishes to get his name on the ballot 
for a nomination must have a petition signed by a certain 
number of voters in the district of which he wishes to be an 
officer. This must be presented several days or weeks 
before the election to the officer who has charge of such 


When Officers Are Chosen 


405 


petitions. The ballots then contain the names of all those 
who wish to be candidates for an office under a certain 
party name, and for non-partisan offices, if such are to be 
filled. 

At the primary there is a separate ballot for each party, 
and many states ask a voter to register as a member of a 
certain party, so that he can not have any part in the prim¬ 
ary in nominating candidates of a party to which he does 
not belong. It was hoped that better men would be nomi¬ 
nated by this method than by conventions. Unfortunately 
this has not always been the case, but there is at least 
this improvement over the old system—that the people 
have the nominations in their own hands, and they them¬ 
selves are really to blame if the wrong men are nominated. 

Even after candidates for an office have been selected 
at the primaries, a person who wishes to get his name on 
the ballot may secure a petition signed by a certain number 
of voters, and can enter the contest under some new party 
name. Such candidates are at a disadvantage, but they 
sometimes succeed. 

Find out the precise dates for primary elections in your state. Do 
voters take very much interest in them? 

200. When Officers Are Chosen. — For some reason 
it has become the rule for general elections to take place 
on the Tuesday after the first Monday of November. 
Electors for the president are chosen in leap years. State 
officers are usually chosen the same day of the year, except 
in Maine. But in some states, county and city officers 
are chosen at a different time. 

Sometimes elections are so arranged that local officers 
and national officers are elected in alternate years. This 
is to prevent state and national politics from influencing 
the election of county and city officers. There is no reason 
in the world why a man’s opinion on the tariff or the Federal 
Reserve Act, for example, should have any effect on the way 


406 


Voting 


he would conduct the office of mayor or road commissioner. 
But if such an officer is chosen at the same time as a Con¬ 
gressman or President, there is a temptation for a voter to 
vote a straight party ticket. 


STDB 


STUB 


TO 


BE TORN OFF DY THE CHAIRMAN 


TO 


BE TORN OFF BY THE F'lBST CLERK , 


OFFICIAL BALLOT FOR PRECINCT No. 247 Multnomah County, Oregon, November 2, 1920 


MARK X BETWEEN THE NUMBER AND NAJVI E OF EACH CANDIDATE OR ANSWER VOTED FOR 


UNITED STATES 



Foe Electors of President sod Vico President of the United 
States VOTE FORPIVB 


u 

GEOROE M C . 

or Muii.osm tcUXTT 

Republic *u 


u 

HOTCHKISS. CLAEtNCr. 

Ol MUXINOMAJI COOK I \ 

RepubUcac 

s? 

2 ? * - 

IS 

MV ME. JOSEPH 
or us« coin* tv 

Rcpui-B> au 

n% oj 

15 

BiCRABDSON. JOHN Y, 

or MU LI NOMA* COOKYY 

Republic*!. 

c£ >3 

022 " 

W* 

ROBB WALTER L, 

Or MULTNOMAH COCNT* 

KopubO' AH 

" 5 

17 

HATTER OSCAR, 
cr pou coorr 

DcQOcratic 

-» 

IS 

HEDLUND. DR E T. 
or MULTNOMAH COUNTY 

Dots oa>U( 

Hi* 

0 5 “ ? 

»3T *i 

i» 

MILLER. ROBERT A. 
or multnomau whit 

DrmixrUM 

ID 

REAME3. A. E. 

or jachson county 

Demo, fatu 

Ss S 

» 

WATKINS. ELTON 

OI MV LI MO MAN C0CX7T 

Demo, ntu 

.3 

s 

AMOS. WM. r„ 

or MOLIbOMAlt COUNTY 

Prohibition 

0 - £ 

a 

JEWETT, MARY K. 
op Lion CvUKYY 

Prohibition 

? & 
r - 01 
2 4*5 

>4 

JOHNSON. E T. 

Of UVlTNOMAM fOUNTY 

Prohibition 

£3 

S3 

PAGET. B LEE. 

or multnua.au couktt 

Prohibition 

r g. h 5 

s*§ 

5 

WALKER, CYRUS B„ 
or LIN* COUNTY 

fro alMi lor. 


n 

JOHNSON. JOHN E. 
or MALIILO* COUNTY 

RocULit 

m 

n M m 

*s 

MV LBS. W W. 

or CLACHAMAS COUNTY 

SoiuUrt 

i s 

a 

RAMP. B r. 

or dovola* county 

SovLtil**. 

* • n? 
<1 
Si SB 
55 i E 

z 

50 

BICH/.RDS. WT S. 
or LI MM COUNTY 

So. ILL’ 

31 

RYAN. R R. 

or MISIOM COUNTY 

SocUUM 

« 

BHARMAN CHAR 11. 
cr multnohmii county 

Jndciulal Labor 


*3 

BERGLVND ANDERS D. 
or MULtKOMAN COUNTY 

Industrial Labor 

g? 

S< Es 

54 

CARLSON. FELIX J„ 

Of MULT NO MAM COUNTY 

lndunrlaJ Labor 

s; I 

35 

LOTT NELS u. 

or • ASH 1 NOTOW COUNTY 

loduiaruj Labor 

3 

|| 3 1 

51 

OLSON JOHN 

Or 4IULTMOKAI! OOrWTY 

I ad ui trial Labor 

2 ** 


STATE 

For Uni led State* Senator id Court*** VOTE FOE ONE _ 


For Justice of the Supremo Court VOTE FOB POUB 


4 * 

BEAN HENRY J of DttaUUa County tL-poblkacDamocntlc 

IS 

BENSCN. HEN It Y L. of KUmatb County 

BopobUean Democratic 

6U 

HAnBIB. LAWRENCE T, of Lano County 

Bcpabllcio Democratic 

31 

OLBRJDE THOMAS A- of OoUunbU County 

Republican Democnitle 



For Patriot Attorney, Multnomah County VOTE FOB OWE 



78 

EV.VNB. WALTER H. of Mnitnnmah County 

Republican 

79 

JEJTBCY. JOHN A-. of MaJInonub County 

Demncra4S< 


For Justice of the Supreme Court. 'To fill vacancy caused by 
tbe resignation of Justice A. 8 Burnett. 

VOTE FOB ONE—by writing in name 


For Attorney OcnenaL To fill vacancy caused by iho lesigua- 
lion ol Attorney General George M. Brown to succeed 
Justice A. S. bcanclL 

VOTE FOR ONE—by writing in name 


For Dairy and Food Commi*5ion«i 

VOTE FOB ONE 

M 

HAWLEY. O I— Of rott County 

RepubUcau Droocnuc 

AS 

VON BCJiaCN. r J. 6f Morion County 

Socialist 


For Commissioner of the Pub Lie Service OommisaioTi of Oregon, 
District Composed of the Countie* Lying West ol the 
Cascade Mountains, Benton, Clackamas, Clatsop, Columbia, 
Coos, Curry, Douglas, Jackson, Josephine, La do, Lincoln, 
Linn, Man on,* Multnomah, Polk, Tillamook, Washington 
ood Yamhill Co untie*_ t _VOTE FOB ONE 

64 BUirm.Tr, w»t D.. or Multnomah County Dorcocnstc 


« Bt/CUTEL. THZD O, of Multnomah County B^pabUtin 

M NEttMAN. OTTO, ol Multa-miuR County Soctnilrt 


For Judge of Circuit Court, Fourth Judicial District, Depart¬ 
ment Number Six, Multnomah County VOTE FOR ONE 
67 MfCOURT. JOHN, of Multnomah Count, RopubUi in Dcmanuc 


For Senator, Thirteenth Senate ml District, Multnomah 
County VOTE FOB FIVE 

68 

EAR BELL ROBT 8 . of Mnlt an trull County RcpubUcan 

W 

HtiME WILSON T. of MutsoaiAh County R«pabUc*n 

60 

JOSEPH. OCO W, of Muiwoman County 

ReptibUian-DemocraUc 

61 

MOSER. 008 O.. of KultmnDAb Coiuilf RcpubUcan 

c: 

UTATLEH. 1BAAO E. vf Maftor mab Count 7 

IUptibUcanDoTOo<T»Ue 

63 

LUNDDOBO. ELMER R. of Mailnomab County DomocraUc 


For Representative, Beveotoeuth Bepri-scntotive District. 

Clackamas and Mnltcomah Counties VOTB FOB ONE 
64 Ml DuNA-LD. W S, of Multnomah County Reputuc-an 


For Bepreecntalive, Eighteenth Bepreseulative District, Malt 
Qorruh C oldly VOTE FOR TWELVE 

e» GORDON HERRElft. Vf MiitaOttUh County 

Republican Detnncrotlo 

« _ siwumi, ruin rm.o, «r Kdmait county . Republican 


COUNTY 


For County Commlssionsr 

VOTE FOB ONE 

60 BUDEEN, CHAR R 

■nRubUcaa-DasecrMt* 

• 

For County Sheriff 

VOTE FOB ONE 

81 HVRLBUBT. THOMAS ML 

Kf nMir>s 

as a MMONa, p j 

D*mocraUn 

• 

For County Clark 

■-- ■■■■- ■: « 

VOTE FOB ON* 

83 BKYEBlDoa, JOS. W. 

Republican DemoaraOe 


For County Treasurer 

VOTE FOB ONE 

*4 LEWIS. JOHN M. 

RapubDcan-DtDOCTOMe 


For County Aioeoior 

VOTE FOB ONE 

•6 WELCH. HIRAM O. 

Republican. DaMMR 

• 

For County School Saperiutenden* 

VOTE FOB ONE 

M ALDERRON. W. a 

ReVbRUcae 


For County Surveyor 

VOTE FOB QNE 

a BONSER. R. O. 

Rvpo Micas-DeaccralM 


For County Coroner 

VOTE FOB ONE 

89 SMITH. EARL 

Republican 


For Judge of the Dutrict Court, Department Number One 

VOTE FOB ONE 

90 REEL J.* W. 

RcpubUcan DuMCTkOa 


Far Judge of th* Dutrict Court Deportment Number Two . 

VOTE FOB ONE 

91 DBJCH. RICHARD 

Republican DraoaiCU 


PART OF AN OREGON BALLOT. 

On this ballot you must vote separately for each office. There is 
no “party square.” Compare this with the Pennsylvania ballot 
shown on page 403. Do you imagine it takes any more brains to 
vote one of these than the other? 


201. Electing a President. — Every four years we choose 
a President. Since the country is to some extent disturbed 
for several months preceding this event, and other coun- 










































































































































































































Electing a President 407 

tries, too, look on with a great deal of interest, we ought to 
understand its principal features clearly. Our Constitution- 
makers intended that a group of electors who seemed espe¬ 
cially qualified to make such an important choice should, 
after deliberation, vote for men whom they thought to be 
capable, and that the President should be chosen in this 
way. At the present time, however, while the rules of the 
Constitution are adhered to, the actual choice of a President 


Copyright, Mojfet Kaufman & Fabry Co., for Underwood & Underwood 
A PRESIDENTIAL NOMINATING CONVENTION. 

This picture shows the delegates and many of the spectators at the 
Republican Convention at Chicago in 1920. 

is not made at all as the makers of the Constitution thought 
it would be. 

The first step in the election of a President is the nomi¬ 
nating convention . Each party holds such a convention 
in a large city in June or July of leap years. Delegates 
from each state make up the convention. They are chosen 
according to the laws of the state. In the Republican 
and Democratic conventions, the total number is almost 
or quite double the number of members of Congress. 





408 Voting 

Most of the states choose their delegates to the national 
conventions of the various parties at direct primaries held 
in the spring of the year, and delegates may be voted for 
because they have agreed to work for the nomination of 
some particular person as a candidate. Sometimes the 
fight between the friends of different men proposed for 
nomination in one party is just as bitter as between Repub¬ 
licans and Democrats after the nomination is made. Some¬ 
times, too, the conventions pay little attention to the 
candidates in whose interest these primary campaigns are 
carried on, and select candidates who get very few votes 
in the state primaries. 

These delegates nominate a candidate for the presidency 
on their party ticket. It has often been necessary to cast 
thirty or forty ballots before any person had a majority. 
In the Democratic convention, a two-thirds vote is re¬ 
quired. A platform, that is, a statement of the party’s 
principles and views, is adopted, and a candidate for the 
vice-presidency is chosen. 

The second step is the choice of electors. The state 
legislatures have provided that these shall be chosen by 
popular vote, and each state elects as many as it has 
Senators and Representatives in Congress. This elec¬ 
tion takes place, as we have said, the Tuesday after 
the first Monday of November in leap years. Each party 
nominates as many electors as the state is entitled to, and 
the voters of each party may vote for the entire list of 
presidential electors put up by the party in their state. 
In this way they are voting for the candidate whom they 
want, for the electors automatically vote for the candidate 
of their party. There is no law which says they must do so, 
but they feel morally bound. 

The electors meet at their state capitol and vote on the 
second Monday of the January following their election. 
This duty is performed simply because the Constitution 
provides for it, and not because it is necessary. They are 


Electing a President 


409 


nothing more than machinery. Two reports are sent to 
the presiding officer of the national Senate, and a third 
is sent to the United States judge of the district in which 
they meet. 

The fourth step in choosing a president is the counting 
of the electoral votes. This takes place on the second 
Wednesday in February, in the House of Representatives, 
with both houses of Congress present. This is also a mere 
formality. Those who have a majority of votes are declared 
to have been elected president and vice-president. 

But in case no presidential candidate has a majority, 
the vote is referred to the House of Representatives, which 
chooses from the three highest. The members from each 
state cast one vote as a unit, and a candidate, to be elected, 
must get the votes of a majority of the states. Therefore 
several ballots may be necessary. Under similar conditions, 
the Senate, its members voting as individuals, elects a vice- 
president from the two highest candidates. 

It sometimes happens that a president is chosen who is 
not really favored by a majority of the American people. 
Political “bosses,” by various means, will sometimes have 
a man nominated whom they can influence. When the 
rivalry between prominent men in one party is close, the 
convention may nominate a comparatively unknown person 
—“a dark horse”—who may fall far short of being the party’s 
strongest or best man. 

Sometimes, too, a candidate loses an election when more 
people in the country vote for the electors of his party 
than of the other. Even though the people of a state may 
favor one candidate almost as much as another, the whole 
electoral vote of that state is usually cast for the leading 
candidate, because most voters vote for all the electors 
of one party, and a margin of a thousand is as good as a 
hundred thousand. So if a candidate has a small lead 
in the popular vote in a few big states, it will probably 
give him a bigger electoral vote than he would get from 


410 


Voting 


large majorities in small states. And under our constitu¬ 
tional method, it is the electoral vote that counts. 

Again, it is quite possible that if an election were close 
and were referred to Congress, a person whom the majority 
of the people did not want might be elected. These 
evils must be remedied before we can be sure that our chief 
executive will be the candidate favored by the greatest 
number of voters. 

What do you think could or should be done to remedy some of the 
weaknesses in the election of a president? Do you think that some of 
the formality could be safely done away with? Do you think the 
whole system should be changed? 

202. How Parties Are Managed. — In speaking of 
elections we have spoken of political parties, because we 
assumed that you knew such organizations exist and have 
something to do with our choice of officers. One person, 
unless he is very influential, can do little to affect the opin¬ 
ions of others. But he can combine with people who have 
the same ideas, and when many of them work together, 
they can accomplish a great deal. A 'political party , then, 
is a group of people of similar political opinions and prin¬ 
ciples, who have formed an organization for the purpose 
of making their principles the policy of the government. 

Every big political party is organized, for otherwise it 
could accomplish little. It has its national committee 
made up of a delegate from each state, and its state, county, 
city, township, and even, in cities, precinct or ward com¬ 
mittees. These committees do all they can to stir up 
public sentiment in favor of their party, and to arouse 
interest in the campaigns. They are usually chosen by 
the same method as candidates are nominated for office. 
Party leaders appoint committees for special campaigns. 

The party platforms drawn up at conventions are often 
composed by a very few men who are appointed as a com¬ 
mittee for this purpose. Parties often do not pretend to 
carry out every plank in the platform. Some are put 


Political Campaigns 411 

there merely to get votes. Usually the convention goes 
through the formality of accepting the platform, with very 
little thought. Whatever disagreement may have existed 
is generally smoothed out in the committee meeting, though 
sometimes the whole convention votes on matters of special 
importance. 

Find out all you can about party committees in your own neighbor¬ 
hood or community. What do they do? 

Sometimes special parties are organized in a city or 
county, which do not make any attempt to elect people 
to state or national offices. Usually such parties are not 
intended to be permanent, and break up soon after an 
election. Sometimes, too, there may be a party organized 
for some reason connected with state politics, which will 
have its county, city, or township officers, though it may 
not care about national officials. 

203. Political Campaigns. — We have already spoken 
of the way in which nominations for office are made. After 
a party has nominated its candidates, there is a period 
of time during which the party carries on a campaign. 
Every imaginable means is used to win people to its side 
and to get the votes of as many people as possible. Either 
the candidates or other speakers address public meetings 
and give arguments and appeals, good or otherwise, in 
favor of the candidate whom they support. 

Years ago, political parties held all sorts of parades and 
street-corner rallies, and stirred up a great deal of excite¬ 
ment. But now, speakers make their appeals more to the 
supposed intelligence of the public, and not so much to 
their emotions. They argue with their audiences and 
with people who have either the courage or the good sense 
to vote independently and not always for one party. Often 
some of the arguments set forth seem to suggest that 
the majority of men do not reason at all, but will be¬ 
lieve everything they are told. Some of the methods 


412 Voting 

used to obtain votes are certainly not creditable to any 
party. 

Besides holding political meetings, parties endeavor to 
win votes by means of advertisements, editorials, news 
items, magazine articles, and the like. Of course, parties 
need a great deal of money to do all this. They obtain 
it by contributions. Formerly corporations gave enormous 
sums of money, in order to be favored during the coming 



Copyright, Underwood & Underwood 
A CAMPAIGN MEETING. 


Secretary of State Chas. E. Hughes was speaking to a great crowd 
at Hastings, Nebraska. He was then a candidate for the presidency 

administration. That is now forbidden by law, however, 
and bribery is unlawful. The names of all large contrib¬ 
utors, and the amount they give, must be reported, and 
candidates must keep an account of all they spend. Un¬ 
fortunately, these laws do not do as much good as they 
might, because many people find ways to get around them. 

Mention some means which parties or candidates have used to 
gain votes in your neighborhood. Can you suggest anything more 
that can be done to clean up politics? Who can do it? What would 




Bad Effects of Parties 


413 


be honest uses of money, and what would be dishonest uses of it, in 
political campaigns? 

204. Bad Effects of Parties. — Parties are not nearly 
so helpful as they might be in the political life of the country. 
The best men, those of high character and ability, ought 
to be in charge of the affairs of a party, but they generally 
are not. Instead, party “bosses” are too often in control, 
and they usually have their own advancement at heart 
rather than the welfare of the party or of the nation. They 
control conventions, and by “wire-pulling,” of which the 
public in general knows nothing, they can put in office 
whomsoever they wish, even with the direct primaries in 
operation. Such office-holders are generally men who can 
be influenced by the bosses. 

Another bad effect of parties appears in the way people 
blindly vote for any person whom the party nominates, 
whether he is the best candidate for the office or not. They 
are often too much prejudiced to see clearly the merits of 
other parties or other men. Independent thinking has 
increased in the country, but there are still too many 
people who are rank partisans, and always vote a certain 
ticket, no matter who is running for office. 

The only hope is that people will act more independently, 
and will vote according to their real beliefs and convictions, 
and not merely for their party. Sometimes, too, voters 
are simply too lazy to think for themselves. “My father 
was a Democrat,” or, “A business man can’t get anything 
unless he is a Republican,” are samples of excuses for voting 
which a person ought to be ashamed to offer. There is no 
sense in voting a “split” ticket just for the sake of saying 
that you have done so, but there are likely to be frequent 
occasions when an intelligent voter ought to pick out the 
best men on different tickets and vote for them, or even 
change his party completely. 

Make a list of foolish excuses for supporting a particular candidate; 
another list of sensible reasons. Is there ever a time when a person 


414 


Voting 


would be justified in refusing to vote at all? Define graft, bribery, 
bossism. (Don’t get the idea that all public officers are dishonest.) 

205. Making Parties Useful. — Political parties should 
be the servants and not the masters of the people. They 
can, if the people wish it, be the agents through which 
the people express their desires or principles. By forcing 
parties to take a stand definitely on one side or another of 
great issues, and then voting for the party in whose prin¬ 
ciples we believe, we can cause the real will of the people 
to be carried out in the government. Then the election 
of an officer will really be a “solemn referendum” of the 
people. Sometimes, it is true, more than one question will 
be discussed in a campaign. Then a voter will have to 
decide which is the most important issue or whose victory 
will on the whole be best for the community, state, or nation, 
as the case may be, and vote accordingly. 

Why were political parties formed? Because people 
held different opinions and different views, and they organ¬ 
ized with others who held the same principles, in order 
to control the government’s actions. But gradually, the 
parties have come to have nearly the same views on most 
of the questions that are always confronting a govern¬ 
ment. What shall we do, then, when new issues come 
up? Shall we try to make the old parties take a stand 
on such issues, or shall we start a new party? Probably 
it is most natural to try the former first. But people should 
surely have backbone and intelligence enough to throw 
away a party which has no convictions or ideals, and join 
with those who are looking ahead rather than backward, 
even if it means forming an entirely new organization. 
And we should be able to see back of the party name, and 
to vote for the candidate whose principles are ours, or 
whose character and experience best fit him to do good 
service. 

Voters ought to take much more interest than they often 
do in primary elections. If they would only turn out and 


Making Parties Useful 


415 


see that good men are nominated by each party, there 
would be much better government than now we often get. 
If we wait until other people have done the nominating, 
we may have to choose between two bad or otherwise 
unfit men. 

When do you think a voter ought to consider chiefly the personal 
characteristics of candidates, and when should he give most considera¬ 
tion to the party platform? Or should the same considerations always 



A VIRGINIA COURT HOUSE. 

In Virginia the county early became the political unit, and the court¬ 
house is the center of county administration. 


come first? Do the members of your families remember the names of 
the officers they voted for at the last election? (See Young, New 
American Government , p. 652.) What does this signify? 

206. The Short Ballot Idea. — At the present time, the 
ballots are often very long. They contain the names of 
candidates for very unimportant offices. When there are 
so many to vote on, the voter can not possibly know the 
qualifications of each one, and he votes blindly, usually 






416 


Voting 


for candidates of the party of which he calls himself a 
member, even though they may not bo the best men. 
When people vote in this way, politicians can easily control 
elections and officers. 

To remedy the evils of the long ballot, some people ad¬ 
vocate the idea known as the “short ballot.” This name 
does not refer to the size of the ballot, however, so much 
as to the principle of it. Briefly, the idea is that the voters 
should choose a few important officers, who, in turn, will ap¬ 
point the others. For example, the chief executives of state, 
county, and city or township, could be elected by the people, 
and they would appoint the officers under them. 

The advantage of the short ballot system is that voters 
can study the lives and characters of a few candidates, 
and vote accordingly. Then these few officers would really 
be the agents of the people, and to let them appoint the 
minor officials would not be denying democracy, for the 
people will already have expressed their will in choosing 
the important officers. Several cities have already adopted 
the short ballot, and it is thought that more will do so in the 
future. 

How does the long ballot serve the interests of political bosses? 
Are there any dangers in the short ballot? Which prevails in your 
state? 

207. Getting Representation for All Parties. — Repre¬ 
sentation in our government is based on districts. Mem¬ 
bers of the House of Representatives, as we have seen, are 
chosen in districts in each state, and the United States 
Senators represent states. But often, unless the greater 
part of the members of the smaller parties happen to be 
crowded into certain parts of the state, the majority party 
may get all the representatives. 

Some people who think this is unfair advocate what is 
called 'proportional representation for parties. This means 
the representation of all parties in the government accord- 


Making Governments Really Representative 417 

ing to their strength. In this way the minority party 
would be represented in the government, and have a voice 
in it as well as the larger parties. 

One scheme of proportional representation is to have 
the districts arranged so that three or more representatives 
would be chosen in a district. Then, for example, a voter 
might take his choice of casting one vote for each of three 
candidates or three votes for one candidate. If the mem¬ 
bers of the smaller party did the latter thing, they would 
probably elect one of their men. There are several schemes 
for proportional representation, some of which sound 
rather complicated. Under any form of this system, the 
more powerful parties would not monopolize the govern¬ 
ment, as they do under the majority system, in which the 
weaker parties have no voice whatever. 

Another idea worth mentioning is that of the preferential ballot. 
Under this scheme a voter might vote a second or third choice of 
candidates as well as his first choice. Then in counting the votes, 
if no candidate had a majority of the first-choice votes, the other 
choices would be reckoned in some fixed proportion. What do you 
think of this? 

208. Non-Partisan Elections.—Some communities have 
adopted the plan of having non-partisan elections—that 
is, not using party names at all on the ballots. In electing 
city, township, or county officers, this is often a great im¬ 
provement, because many people who usually vote simply 
for a party name will then vote for the man whom they 
consider the best for the office. Of course, political party 
organizations sometimes use their influence to get a certain 
man elected, but it is not so easy as if they could work for 
him under a party name. Non-partisan elections do lead 
to independent voting. 

Would non-partisan elections be possible in state or national govern¬ 
ments? 

209. Making Governments Really Representative.— 
The people themselves, as we have said, are really responsi- 


418 


Voting 

ble for good government. They can, if they wish, have the 
government carried on well, and make it truly representa¬ 
tive of their desires. The first thing we must do is to show 
an interest in the government, and the election of its officers. 
“Nothing great was ever accomplished without enthusiasm/' 
and if we want to bring about a reform or an improvement, 
we must go about it with real interest. Indifference 
achieves nothing, and there are too many Americans who 
leave all the work for the other fellow to do. We must not 
think of our vote simply as an individual thing, but remem¬ 
ber that each of us is one part of a great whole. Every 
person who is qualified should make it a point to vote on 
election day. 

The great political parties of the country can be made to 
stand for the principles and opinions of the people. The 
people should think of parties as their agents to bring 
about what they desire, instead of becoming the ser¬ 
vants of the parties, and upholding them no matter what 
stand they may take, or what officers they may nom¬ 
inate. When a party which is formed to promote the 
success of one cause has finished its work, what is the 
sense of forever keeping the same name and organization 
which no longer signifies anything in particular? Surely 
it is not sound reasoning that because a party name was 
used once in a righteous cause, it will always represent the 
right, or that, because a party elected an Abraham Lincoln 
or Thomas Jefferson to office, all its candidates are Lincolns 
or Jeffersons. 

We have previously discussed the advantages of inde¬ 
pendent thinking in elections. There is more of this 
than there used to be, but until independent thinking 
becomes a habit of the people, our government will not 
be truly representative. It can be so only when the officers 
and the parties stand for definite principles. Too often 
parties try to “straddle,” to appear to be on both sides 
of a question at once, and too often they make all kinds of 



Making Governments Really Representative 419 

promises just to get votes. And then many voters go 
right on casting their ballots for the same party names, no 
matter how its candidates act. 

The people should insist that the men whom they elect 
to office carry out their wishes and express their opinions 
in the government. If they do not, the unworthy officer 
or party should be rebuked in no uncertain way when the 


A MASSACHUSETTS TOWN HALL. 

The New England Town Meeting is generally regarded as the most 
representative form of government in America. Tocqueville says: 
“Town meetings are to liberty what primary schools are to science.” 
The Town Meeting is held in the Town Hall. 

next election comes around. When people know what they 
want, when they can distinguish the true from the false, 
the honest from the dishonest, when parties say what the 
majority of their members believe, when officers do what 
they promise—then Americans may say truly that we are a 
democracy, that this is a government by the people, instead 
of a mere shell of system and formalities. 





420 


Voting 


What difficulties sometimes make it hard for a voter to decide be¬ 
tween different candidates? What kinds of advice in politics should 
we be slow in accepting? 


QUESTIONS 

Is voting a right, a duty, or a privilege? Why is voting important? 
What people have the right to vote? Why do voters in many states 
have to register? 

What methods of voting were once common? Explain the plan 
now in operation. What is the Australian ballot? Describe the 
arrangement of names on different forms of ballots. 

What different methods have been used for nominating candidates? 
Explain the direct primary. Of what value is it? Define caucus; 
convention. 

On what day of the year are most elections held? Should national 
and state elections be held at the same time? How did the makers 
of the Constitution expect the President to be elected? Enumerate 
the steps in electing the President today. Explain the nominating 
convention. What is the electoral college? How many people com¬ 
pose it and what do they do? Do we always elect our ablest men 
to the presidency? What obstacles stand in the way of election of 
able men? 

What is a political party? Explain its organization. Define 
platform. What is meant by a campaign? By what methods do 
parties attempt to influence voters? In what ways do parties exert 
a harmful influence on the country? In what ways may parties be 
useful? How far is it the fault of the voters if good men are not 
elected? 

What is the short ballot idea? What advantages are claimed for 
it? Explain proportional representation. Are non-partisan elections 
desirable? What should a voter think of before he casts his ballot? 
Why should a good citizen think independently in politics? What 
conditions are necessary to have real democracy in our government? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

Conducting an Election. (Every civics class should imitate as 
nearly as possible among its own members the election process which 
is in vogue in its own state and community. Voters should be regis¬ 
tered and pay taxes, if necessary, and vote for the same officials whose 
names appear on the regular ballots. If sample ballots cannot be 
secured mimeographed ballots will be satisfactory. It is most effec¬ 
tive to study this topic and conduct this election at the time when an 


Themes and Exercises 


421 


actual campaign is going on, but of course unpleasant expressions of 
partisanship should be carefully avoided by teacher and class.) 

A Study of the Ballots Used in Various States. 

The Suffrage Laws in Our State. 

Resolved, that every voter should be able to read and write the 
English language. 

A Presidential Nominating Convention. (If an actual nomination 
is to take place the current year or the next year, the class would find 
it interesting and profitable to turn itself into a convention and go 
through the regular processes of such conventions.) 

Susan B. Anthony and Her Accomplishments. 

How Candidates Are Nominated in Our State. 

A Summary of Mr. Bryce’s Chapter, “ Why Great Men Are Not 
Chosen President.” 

Famous Presidential Campaigns. 

How Parties Are Managed in Our Community. 

Resolved, that no voter should habitually vote a straight party 
ticket. 

Resolved, that party names should not be used in local elections (or 
in state elections). 

Resolved, that the short ballot idea should be adopted in our local 
and state elections. 

Theories of Proportional Representation. 


CHAPTER XIV 

SUPPORTING THE GOVERNMENT 


Patriotism calls for the faithful 'performance of all the duties of citizen * 
ship, in small matters as well as on tented fields. — Bryan. 


210. Kinds of Support That the Government Needs. — 
Government is a machine which will not operate itself. 
It must have people to run it, support from those upon 
whom its authority rests, and money, like oil, to keep the 
machinery going. The mere framework of government, 
as it is set forth in the national Constitution, would have 
absolutely no value if people were not elected to fill the 
various offices which are provided. 

Then these officials must have the backing of the people* 
No government with a majority of the people opposed can 
last very long. Besides, the financial side of government is 
extremely important. We all know that we must pay 
for all we get. It is the same way with the government. 
With its great amount of work to do, it must pay salaries 
to those who perform its tasks, must have offices, custom¬ 
houses, and many other buildings to work in, and must 
constantly buy supplies and make repairs. In this chapter 
we shall discuss the various means of support which our 
government has, and how they are exercised. 

211. Why We Spend Money. — The purposes for which 
governments spend money may be divided into three 
groups. 

(1) Protective . — The defense of the country from foreign 
enemies, which includes the maintenance of an army and 

422 




Why We Spend Money 


423 


navy; the suppression of disorder within the country; and 
the safeguarding of the people’s lives and property. 

(2) Industrial. — The encouragement of industry; the 
promotion of good industrial conditions; the building of 
bridges, roads, and canals, and the improvement of rivers 
and harbors; and the regulation of the relations of indus¬ 
trial workers with one another. 

(3) Social. — The promotion of the welfare of the 
people—the care of the poor, sick, and unfortunate, the 



A LONG BRIDGE IN THE CITY. 


prevention of disease, the education of the people, and many 
other forms of betterment or comfort. 

The expenditure of money for all these purposes is dis¬ 
tributed among national, state, and local governments. 
The cost of defending the nation from foreign enemies 
must be borne entirely by the national government. It 
also does some of the work of constructing roads and canals, 
and improving rivers and harbors, and it has entire charge 
of interstate commerce. The state and local governments 
spend a great deal of money on the prevention of disorder. 















424 Supporting the Government 

the care of the unfortunate, the construction and repair of 
highways, education, the promotion of health, and the like. 

Make a list of ten things which have been done recently in your 
neighborhood by some government agency or officer. Which were 
paid for by the national, which by the state, and which by the local 
government? 

212. Kinds of Taxes. —Most of the money to spend 
for these many purposes and others is obtained through 
taxes. A tax is really nothing more than taking a part 
of a person’s property or wealth to use for some public 
purpose. But generally instead of taking the property 
itself the government is glad to receive a payment of money. 

Taxes are divided into two large groups, direct and in¬ 
direct. Direct taxes are those which place the burden 
of the tax directly upon those from whom it is collected. 
Indirect taxes are those whose burden is placed on other 
persons than those from whom they are collected. Taxes 
on buildings, land, incomes, and inheritances are usually 
thought of as direct. Import taxes are indirect. But 
the public at large often bears the burden of both kinds 
of taxes, for if they are not collected directly from them, 
they pay them in higher rents and higher prices for various 
commodities. 

A proportional tax is one which is levied on a fixed per¬ 
centage basis—that is, five per cent, for example, regardless 
of the amount of property to be taxed. A progressive 
or graduated tax is one in which the percentage rate increases 
as the value of the article taxed increases. Under the 
federal income tax law of 1924, incomes under $4,000 
were taxed two per cent, from $4,000 to $8,000 four per 
cent, and over $8,000 six per cent, with a “surtax” on 
larger incomes gradually rising to forty per cent. 

An excise is a tax levied on goods sold within a country. 
This is sometimes called internal revenue. A tax on tobacco 
manufactures is an example of this. Taxes on imported 
goods are called customs , duties , or imposts. There are 


What Is a Good Tax? 


4 25 


two kinds of duties: specific duties, which levy a certain 
amount per unit—so much a pound, yard, or bushel; and 
ad valorem, which collect a certain percentage of the value 
of the goods. 

Do you think an income tax is fairer on the proportional or the 
progressive basis? Of these various kinds of taxes, which would be 
easiest to collect? 

213. What Is a Good Tax? — It would be hard to con¬ 
vince some people that any tax can be a good one. Yet 
as we have seen, we can not get along without taxes, and 



AN UNPAVED CITY STREET. 


no good citizen will refuse to pay his fair share. There are 
several qualities which a good tax should have. 

(1) It should be based on the people’s ability to pay; the 
rich r an can pay a larger tax than the poor man without 
feeling it as a burden. 

(2) A tax should be uniform in all places and for all 
people; that is, no preference should be shown any section 
of the country or state or community or any group of 
people, but all people in the same class should be subject 
to the same rate of taxation. 

(3) A tax should be used for public purposes and for 




426 Supporting the Government 

the good of the whole community, and not for the benefit 
of just a few people. 

(4) It should be convenient; that is, the time and manner 
of payment should be set, and these should cause as little 
trouble as possible to the people. 

(5) It should be economical, that is, not too difficult 
to collect, and means should be provided for forcible 
collection of it if people do not pay it. 

(6) It should be authorized by legislation , because the 
law-makers represent the whole people. 

At first thought we might say that a tax should be levied 
according to the benefits received from the government. 
But this is rather difficult, for many people who do not 
own property, and whose incomes are not large enough 
to be taxed, receive many and great benefits. Even people 
who are not United States citizens enjoy many of the ser¬ 
vices of the government, such as the privilege of sending 
their children to the public schools, and the protection 
afforded by fire and police departments. 

But if a tax has these desirable qualities which we have 
listed, the people should be willing to pay it, and to support 
their government in this way. Some people employ all 
kinds of tricks and expedients to keep their tax bills as 
low as possible. These tricks do not always violate the 
letter of the law, but are meant to escape payments that 
the government intended should be made. Will a good 
citizen do this kind of thing? 

214. Sources for Taxes Used by Nation, State, and 
Locality. — The different governments have their various 
sources of revenue. The national government obtains 
money from import duties, internal revenue, income and 
inheritance taxes, corporation taxes, fines, and the so- 
called “luxury” taxes which were levied during the 
war. 

The state levies taxes on personal property, corporations, 
and inheritances, and also obtains money from licenses, 


Sources for Taxes 


427 


such as those for automobiles, which are a very large source 
of revenue, from fees, fines, and the like. 

Local governments depend upon real estate taxes for 
the greater part of their revenue, and also upon occupation 
or poll taxes, fines, and the like. Sometimes both a locality 
and a state will lay a tax on some article or property, and 
in such cases, both taxes must be paid. Both city and 
county tax real estate in some states, and even the work 



GRADING OF A STREET COMPLETED. 

This is the same street as that shown on page 425. You can 
imagine how much better it is going to look when the surfacing is 
put on. This is where some of your tax money goes. 

of assessment is sometimes done by two separate bodies 
of men. This overlapping of work is not necessary, and 
simply adds to the cost of government. Very often state 
taxes are collected through the counties as a matter of 
convenience. 

What different kinds of taxes do the citizens of your state and 
locality pay? Do they meet all the desirable qualities mentioned in 
Section 213? From the reports of your city, town, county, and 
state treasurer or controller make a list of the principal items of ex- 






428 


Supporting the Government 


pense and sources of revenue for each grade of government. Perhaps 
you can work these into the form of a chart or graph. 

215. How Taxes Are Levied. —Let us see how our 
governments levy and collect these taxes. Import taxes, 
that is, customs, duties, or imports, are collected at the 
custom-houses before the goods are permitted to be taken 


TAKE NOTICE 


ras 


[ES 


*re- 

fethe 


ter, 


The Assessor having delivered the 
assessment rollF tc the undersigned, 
they are now open for the inspection 
of all persons interested. Thu City 
Trustees will meet as a Board of 
Equalization at the City Hall, in 
the City of Calexico, on Monday, 
August 9, 1920, at 10 A. M., and 
will continue to meet from day to 
day until August 23, 1920, or until 
all of the business before the Board 
is disposed of. All persons inter¬ 
ested are hereby notified to appear 
before the Board of Equalization at 
its sessions for the adjust ment of 
their assemments. 

PAUL B. STEINTORF, 
City Clerk. 

Calexico, Calif., Aug. 2, 1920. 


adv? 


B, 


CORRECTING THE TAX LISTS. 

This notice is a copy of one which appeared, mis¬ 
takes and all, in a California paper. It gave warning 
that, the valuation of the property of the city having 
been completed, any persons who wished to have their 
property valuation reduced might appear before the 
proper officials. 


away. Internal taxes are levied before the articles leave 
the factory or the store, and the money is paid to the office 
of the collector of internal revenue. Income taxes are paid 
directly to the collector’s office. 

Assessment of property is made yearly in some states, in 
some less often, by the assessors of the state or the local 








How Taxes Are Levied 


429 


government. After the assessors have completed their work, 
it is simply a question in arithmetic to add up the value of 
the taxable property in the whole community. Then the city 
council or other proper officers decide how much the com¬ 
munity must or ought to spend for public services. They 
estimate how much is likely to be derived from the sources 
of income mentioned in section 216, and subtract it from 
the total amount desired. By dividing the remainder by 
the total value of the community's taxable property they 
find the rate of taxation. It is often expressed as a certain 
number of mills on a dollar. 

Taxes on real estate and personal property are paid to 
the state or county or local treasurer after the property 
has been assessed. Often a discount is given if taxes are 
paid before a certain time, and a penalty is added after 
a certain date. If people refuse to pay their taxes, their 
property can be sold, and the taxes and the cost of sale de¬ 
ducted, the rest being given to the owner. License fees are 
paid directly to the treasurer whose duty it is to receive them. 

Find out exactly the process of levying and paying any taxes which 
members of your family have to pay. 

The power of laying taxes is used for other purposes than 
that of obtaining revenue. We have seen that by placing 
a tariff on certain imports to this country, the government 
makes it possible for a home producer to sell his goods at 
a higher price, because the tariff makes the foreign goods 
cost more. Sometimes perhaps the industry could not be 
carried on at all here unless it were helped in this way. 
This is called a protective tariff. People are not agreed as to 
the wisdom of such a tariff, but we have had one in some 
form during the greater part of our national history. 

We may mention two facts about a protective tariff 
which many people do not realize. (1) The tariff is really 
paid by our own people who buy the foreign goods, for the 
importer adds the amount of the tariff to the price he would 


430 


Supporting the Government 


otherwise charge. It does not hurt the foreign producer 
except by lessening the sale of his goods in this country. (2) 
There is a limit to the amount of money which can be raised 
by a protective tariff. If the tariff is very high, no goods 
will be imported, and of course there will then be no revenue 
at all. It is largely guess-work to attempt to tell in ad¬ 
vance at what point the duty should be fixed to bring in 
the greatest revenue. 



THE CUSTOM HOUSE AT PHILADELPHIA. 


Again, Congress may regulate, restrict, or even abolish 
an industry by placing a high tax on it. Some states used 
to require a high license fee from liquor-dealers, for example, 
so that its sale could be limited. In order to put out of 
circulation the paper money issued by state banks, Con¬ 
gress imposed a tax so high as to take all the profit out 
of their issue. State and local governments sometimes 
do the same sort of thing, in order to do away with con¬ 
ditions which seem objectionable. 








Other Sources of Income 


431 


216. Other Sources of Income. — Although our govern¬ 
ments depend upon taxes as their main source of revenue, 
there are other means of government income. One of 
these is the sale of public land or property. In the past 
our government has obtained a great deal of money by 
the sale of public lands. This can no longer be counted 
as a large source of revenue, because the government owns 
comparatively little land now which can be easily culti¬ 
vated. Public industries, like the post office, while not 
carried on for profit, sometimes do bring a little money to 
the government. Occasionally some generous citizen 
makes a gift to the government, but this does not occur 
often, and can not be depended upon as a source of income. 
Fines imposed upon law-breakers, license fees and fees for 
certain services, also bring some money into the treasury. 

Every government, too, may exercise the right of eminent 
domain . This means that it may take any property 
that it wishes to use for constructing highways, putting 
up public buildings, or other public objects. If the officials 
can not agree with the former owner as to the value of the 
property that is taken, the dispute is turned over to a board 
of viewers, who decide what should be paid. Exercising 
the right of eminent domain does not therefore bring in 
revenue to the government, but it sometimes enables the 
government to obtain property which the owner refuses 
to sell, or for which he wants an unreasonably high price. 

Sometimes, also, when a public improvement is made, like 
paving a new street, laying a sewer, or some other work of 
more benefit to a particular neighborhood than to the whole 
community, a special assessment is laid upon the owners of 
the property which is particularly benefited by the improve¬ 
ment. The government does not always get the money 
in this way to pay the entire cost, but sometimes pays a 
large part of the cost out of the general treasury. 

Why are these last two means of securing property or money 
justifiable? 


432 Supporting the Government 

217. Borrowing Money. —Governments may also ob¬ 
tain money by loans . These should not be resorted to at 
all times and under any circumstances, but when some 
great project is being carried out it may be right and de¬ 
sirable to borrow money for the purpose. Every govern¬ 
ment, unless it is bankrupt, can borrow money, and not 
only the national but most state and local governments 
have public debts. Reasonable causes for borrowing money 
are for war, or for some improvement like the Panama Canal 
or a great highway which is permanent. Money should 
seldom, if ever, be borrowed to meet the regular expenses 
of carrying on a government. 

Do you think it is right for a city to borrow money for repairing 
streets? 

Governments borrow money from their own people 
more often than from any other source, though sometimes 
one government lends to another as we did to our allies 
in the Great War. They do this most often through the 
sale of bonds. During the Great War, the United States 
government borrowed over twenty billions of dollars from 
the people in the Liberty Loans. Money for the paying 
of this great debt and the interest on it will have to be ob¬ 
tained by taxation, so that the people are really taking 
money out of one pocket and putting it into another. 

Some people say that a government should not borrow 
money from its own people because it takes so much money 
out of circulation. But in the case of the Liberty Loans, 
the money obtained was immediately used to buy war 
supplies in this country, or for the pay of the soldiers, or 
some similar purpose, so that it went right back into use 
again. 

Borrowing money for various purposes is popular with a 
great many people because they find it easy to shift the 
burden of paying upon future generations. This is, of 
course, a rather selfish viewpoint, but if the thing for which 
money is borrowed is permanent, and will benefit people 


Public Land and Property 433 

for a long time to come, then there may be some excuse 
for it. Very often the payment of interest on a large debt 
amounts to more than the original sum, and is dragged out 
for years, becoming a burden to people who are not in the 
least responsible for the obligation, and get little if any 
benefit from it. 

Most governments owe money to their own people or 
to others. They do not make a great effort to rid them¬ 
selves entirely of debt, because it is thought by many 
people that it is a good thing for a country to be in debt. 
Many economists say that when governments have debts, 
they are likely to be economical, whereas they would other¬ 
wise spend money extravagantly. 

218. Public Land and Property.—Our government 
owns a great deal of property in the country. There are 
the great national parks, which are kept in their natural 
beauty for the benefit of the people. A little of the cost 
of maintaining these is met by the money obtained from 
people who rent remote parts of them for cattle-grazing, 
but most of it is paid by appropriations made from the 
public treasury. City parks are usually maintained en¬ 
tirely by public taxation. While such things as these are 
public property, they do not bring in much revenue. In 
fact, it is best if we do not think much about the mere money 
side of this particular matter. 

The forest reserves are maintained by the government, 
and are expected to repay the government at some time 
for its expense in caring for them. Some of this land is 
also rented for grazing purposes, and perhaps in days 
to come our nation may get a good deal of rent for the use 
of water power or the mining of coal, and the use of other 
natural resources that may be found in these reserves. 
It is not necessary to treat them in just the same way as 
the parks. We have already spoken of the sale of public 
land as a source of revenue. 

There is also the reclamation of land. The government 


434 Supporting the Government 

has spent a great deal of money constructing great dams 
and ditches for irrigating desert regions, and draining 
swamp lands. The people who are benefited by this work 
pay for it. For instance, people living in an irrigated 
district pay rent for the water, and this helps meet the 
expense of irrigation. 

Public buildings are usually constructed and kept in repair 



LILAC SUNDAY, ROCHESTER, N. Y. 

No wonder people come out to look at these beautiful flowers in one 
of Rochester’s parks. 

with money obtained by public taxation. Sometimes a 
public building is constructed as a gift, however, and some¬ 
times money is borrowed for the purpose. The latter 
is eventually paid by the people. 

219. Budgets.—In the chapter on Wealth, we dis¬ 
cussed the family budget. This idea can be, and is, to 
some extent, carried out in governments as well. Many 
European countries have adopted this very sensible way of 
handling public expenses, but our government has only re- 



Budgets 435 

cently adopted the system. We have always spent money 
for various purposes, and trusted to luck or good fortune to 
make the revenue and the expenditures come out even. 
They have seldom done so, however. This is certainly a 
very businesslike way of handling the expenses of so great 
a nation as ours. 

Few of the states have budget systems. Some cities 
and other localities do have them. In some states, the 
county commissioners have been in the habit of figuring 
up the needs of the county in connection with the tax rate 
they levy. Many city councils make up a budget every 
year. These are sometimes very inaccurate, but at least 
they show definitely the purposes for which money will have 
to be spent, and that is better than no system at all. 

We now have in our national Department of the Treasury 
a Bureau of the Budget, headed by a Director, with an 
Assistant Director. This bureau is to combine all es¬ 
timates for expenditures which are made by any officer 
of the government and submit them to the President, with 
a statement of the probable receipts of the government for 
the next year and recommendations for changes in the 
revenue laws of the country. The President in turn is to 
lay this budget before Congress. There is also to be an 
office called the General Accounting Office, which is to be 
headed by a Comptroller-General and which is to be inde¬ 
pendent of any other government department. This 
office is to be responsible for auditing the accounts of all 
government officials and for seeing that no money is paid 
out except in accordance with the laws of Congress. Under 
this plan there ought to be a tremendous improvement in 
the handling of our country’s money. Some system like 
this ought to exist in every state and local government. 

As long as we have the careless bookkeeping and ineffi¬ 
cient management of public business which have been so 
common in the past we can not hope to avoid countless 
evils. We can not expect anything else than extravagance 


436 Supporting the Government 

and waste. Officers who do not have to give a strict account 
of their finances will be strongly tempted to be reckless 
in their expenses and even to indulge in the dishonest 
practice of graft. Money will be spent under the authority 
of laws when there is no certainty that the funds in the 
treasury will last throughout the year. Friends of poli¬ 
ticians will expect easy jobs and good salaries, and public 
property will be used for private pleasure because there is 
no way to check up on such abuse. It is certainly time 
that this kind of thing came to an end. 

Does your city or locality have a budget system? Find out, if 
you can, whether the expenses and the revenue usually meet. Could 
your budget system be improved? Study the reports of your city, 
town, or county government, and find out from what sources the 
money comes into the treasury and the principal items for which it 
is spent. 

220. Proposed Changes in Taxation. — There has been 
a great deal of fault found with our present system of 
taxation. One of the many remedies proposed is the 
single tax idea, which is that nothing except the value of 
land should be taxed. One of its greatest advocates was 
Henry George. He wrote a book called “Progress and 
Poverty,” in which he set forth the proposition and said 
that it would be the cure for almost all the social and eco¬ 
nomic evils that exist. 

The “Single Taxers” declare that the use of land, which 
is the gift of nature, should be taxed, and not the buildings 
erected upon it. They assert that by taxing buildings 
more than land, industrious men are being punished for 
their enterprise. This statement is rather strong, but it 
is certain that land-holders have not paid all they should 
pay. Single taxers also say that their system would 
abolish slums, and better the housing conditions, because 
if vacant land were taxed, there would be no inducement 
to speculators to hold it, and people would not be forced 
into already crowded sections of cities. 


Proposed Changes in Taxation 437 

On the other hand, if only land were taxed, people 
would probably erect high tenements and apartment houses, 
and these would encourage rather than discourage over¬ 
crowding. Such a tax would have to be coupled with 
strict building regulations. Then, too, is it fair to tax a 
piece of vacant land, which is no special burden to the 
government, and let buildings, which must have police 
and fire protection, go free? Besides, is it sound policy to 
depend upon one source of revenue for all the money that 



A CHANCE FOR A SINGLE-TAX ARGUMENT. 

The single taxer says that the owner of this open corner lot, grown 
up to weeds, should pay as large a tax as the owners of the adjoining 
lots on which houses have been erected. Do you agree with him? 

our governments need? How could this one source be 
suddenly equal to such demands as would be made by a 
great war, for example? The Single Taxers have doubtless 
called attention to some real evils by presenting their 
theory, but it is doubtful if it would do all that some of its 
friends say it would. 

What do you think of the single-tax idea? 

It might be very desirable if taxes could be reformed so 
that the sources of revenue for the national, state, and local 





438 Supporting the Government 

governments would not overlap, as they often do under 
the present system. Many states which have taxed incomes 
and inheritances declare that the national government 
should not use this source of revenue also. They say that 
this is double taxation. All governments try, however, 
to tax those who are able to pay. In course of time the 
burden of any tax will be distributed over the whole 
community. The big problem is to collect the necessary 



SOLDIERS ON DUTY. 

These are Marines in Hayti. They were sent to keep order in that 
turbulent Negro republic. They did so but the native inhabitants 
were not particularly pleased. 

taxes in such a way that they will not seem an unreasonable 
burden at the time they are paid. 

221. Supporting the Government in War.—In the 
last few years, our people all had an opportunity to find 
out from experience how we may support our government 
in war, besides by paying taxes. Many were and are sub¬ 
ject to actual military service, which, under the present 
laws, reaches all men between the ages of 18 and 45. The 
draft laws called many of these into service, besides the 



Supporting the Government in War 439 

large number who volunteered. There were, too, the 
Liberty Loans, which furnished the government with money 
to carry on the war. The Thrift Stamps, which were 
within reach of everybody, also were helpful in this re¬ 
spect. 

The Red Cross, supported by the gifts and labor of young 
and old, and helped in this country by women and girls 
who sewed, knitted, and rolled bandages, did a wonderful 



Courtesy Air Service 

THE ARLINGTON AMPHITHEATRE. 


This was erected as a memorial to the soldiers who gave their lives 
to their country. The gravestones of many of them appear in the 
picture. 

work. Organizations which tried to make the camp life 
of the soldier happier and better also played an important 
part. All of us paid the war tax on the “movies,” on candy, 
ice cream, perfume, and the like, and perhaps some of us 
did not spend as much as usual for these unnecessary 
things, so that we could give the money for a more helpful 
cause. 

And then we gave our loyalty. The soldiers who went 
abroad knew we were backing them up, and this counts 




440 


Supporting the Government 


just as much in war as it does in a football game. Surely, 
no more ways could be found to support our government in 
war than were shown in the Great War by a large part of 
the American people. 

222. Traitors. —But loyalty, we are sorry to say, 
does not seem to form a big portion of the make-up of some 
people. Once in a while a person is so low as to turn 
against the government which he ought to support. Such 
a person we call a traitor. “Treason against the United 
States shall consist only in levying war against them, or 
in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid or comfort.” 
Thus our Constitution defines treason. It says also that 
no person shall be convicted of treason unless he admits it 
in court, or two persons have witnessed the crime. 

These strict provisions were made for fear the government 
would try to keep people from expressing their opinions 
about the government, or to punish them on mere suspicion 
of discontent with it. Conviction of treason is, therefore, 
very difficult in this country. Even the famous Aaron 
Burr could not be convicted on account of the lack of 
witnesses. People have proposed that the killing of a 
President should be considered treason. This would re¬ 
quire a constitutional amendment, and it is improbable 
that it will be made. Congress has the power to make a 
law declaring what the punishment for treason shall be. 

223. Supporting the Government in Peace. — In time 
of peace, there are many services we can do for our govern¬ 
ment. Some of these we have already mentioned. There 
is jury service. Surely there is no better way of serving 
our country than by helping to punish those who break 
the laws, and to protect innocent people. When called 
for this purpose, people should serve willingly. People 
in some occupations, however, are excused from serving, 
because it is thought that others might be seriously incon¬ 
venienced if these people were taken away from their regular 
duties for two or three weeks. 


How We May Show Our Loyalty 441 

Another duty is voting. By our vote, we show what we 
want our government to do, and what principles we stand 
for, and we help decide how we shall be governed. But in 
order to vote intelligently, there is another service we 
must perform. We must study the public problems which 
face our government, and form an opinion on them. Such 
problems are always before our country, and if the people 



Copyright, International 

BUYING LIBERTY BONDS. 


Vice President Marshall is selling bonds to Senators Lodge, Thomas, 
and Chamberlain. These men not only voted for war but helped to 
furnish the funds. 

do not understand and have opinions on them, how can we 
expect the officers whom the people elect to know what the 
people want? Let us try to rid ourselves of the idea that 
government is a great network stretched over us, which 
can control our actions as it pleases. We are the govern¬ 
ment, if we choose to make ourselves such, for we, the 










442 Supporting the Government 

people, have been given the power to control our govern¬ 
ment. 

224. How We May Show Our Loyalty.—We have 
spoken of supporting our government through loyalty. 
How can we do this? When people take office, they take 
the oath of office, that is, they pledge themselves to support 
the Constitution and the laws, and to do their best as 
public officers. Most officers try to carry out this oath 
during their public service. No matter whether or not 
we are public officials, can not all of us pledge ourselves 
to do our duty as citizens of the United States, and to 
support our government? 

Another way to show our loyalty is by obeying the laws. 
And after all, this is not such a hard thing to do. The 
laws of our government aim to regulate, not to restrict, 
the actions of the people. Surely none of us have found 
that the laws to which we are subject have inconvenienced 
us in any great degree. Most of them are only definite, 
written statements of what our own consciences should 
tell us is right or wrong, just or unjust. If the matter 
involved is not a question of conscience, it at least calls 
for the opinion of the majority as to what is wise to do or 
not to do. If we do what we know is right, we have little 
to fear of the law. 

225. The Good Citizen at Home. — Many times in 
our study we have stopped to consider what we, as in¬ 
dividuals, can do. Let us now summarize the things 
we can do at home to help the government in its work. 

Every home is a little community in itself. In our homes 
we have our common interests and our common laws. 
We learn obedience in the home, and just as we respect 
home rules, so we will respect the laws of our country. No 
community is entirely isolated, and our homes “rub elbows” 
with other homes, and can not help being influenced by 
the contact. We can make this influence just what we 
wish it to be. 


The Good Citizen at School 


443 


In promoting the Elements of Welfare, there is much for 
us all to do. We should make our homes sanitary and 
healthful, and keep them clean. We should allow our¬ 
selves enough recreation so that we can do our work well. 
In the matter of wealth, we all know how important it is 
for boys and girls, men and women, to use care, to save 
and to plan in order to get the greatest use of their 
money. 

We all want our communities also to be attractive. 
The place to begin is in the home. If people have homes 
that are in good taste, and arranged attractively, they 
will not be satisfied with dirty, carelessly kept streets 
and buildings. The influence of uplifting surroundings 
on every phase of our life is great. 

Suppose all the families on a street agree to clean up their 
property, and keep the sidewalks swept and their lawns in 
order. The result would be a street which would be a 
credit to any neighborhood. But if one person did not 
live up to his agreement, the whole effect would be spoiled. 

The matter of Right Living depends almost entirely 
upon what the individual thinks and does, and the home 
is the place where the fundamental principles of right and 
wrong are learned. So let us be careful about our life in 
the home, and carry out here the principles of good citizen¬ 
ship. 

226. The Good Citizen at School. — We all spend a 
considerable part of our early life in school. School is to 
prepare us to meet the tests of mature life, but as we have 
said, it is really life itself, and has a great many problems 
of its own. In school we learn how to be good citizens. 
A democratic government must have intelligent people, 
and we get this necessary education in school. 

But how can we support our government in school? First, 
we can put into practice what we learn about this life 
with other people; we can observe the laws of health, and 
promote the welfare of our communities. Then we can 


444 


Supporting the Government 


study public problems, and form our own opinions on them, 
and take a general interest in all matters that affect our 
government and our life. 

Did it ever occur to you that your town or city or state 
is investing a good many dollars a year in every one of 
the students in its public schools? Now what is your 
community getting out of its investment as far as you are 



Courtesy Junior Red Cross 
A MANUAL TRAINING CLASS AT WORK. 

These boys are learning through their school work how to use 
both their heads and their hands. In this particular case they 
were making furniture for war refugees. 

concerned? Is it a waste of money for them to see that 
you are provided with so many opportunities to improve 
yourself, when all you are asked to do is to make the best 
use of these opportunities? Perhaps some of us would 
not be quite so careless, or even worse than that, if the 
idea we have just mentioned came home to us a little more 
clearly, 





Questions 


445 


Find out what it costs on the average for each pupil in the public 
schools of your community. If this sum were the interest on an 
investment at six per cent, what would be the principal? Are you 
worth that much to your town or city and state? 

227. The Good Citizen in Later Life. —After we have 
left school, and have taken up our life work, what makes 
us good citizens? What does a good citizen do? We have 
tried to point this out over and over again. He is primarily 
law-abiding, careful, and intelligent. He helps his govern¬ 
ment by doing his part in promoting and protecting the 
health and happiness of the people. He does all he can 
to turn public opinion in the right way. He votes for 
good men, men who he believes will conduct the govern¬ 
ment rightly. He respects and obeys the laws, and pays 
his share of the taxes instead of trying to sneak out of his 
obligations. 

In all, he is what we all think a real, true American should 
be. And there is nothing of which we should be more 
proud than of being a real American! Let us see to it 
that each of us makes himself the best possible citizen, 
and that together we make our neighborhood, our state, 
and our nation the best that any in the world can be. 

Make a list of 10 kinds of people, old or young, who are undesirable 
citizens. 

Why would you consider the following as desirable citizens: George 
Washington, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lin¬ 
coln, Grover Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, 
Benjamin Franklin, Robert Fulton, Clara Barton, Dorothea Dix, 
Harriet Beecher Stowe, Booker T. Washington, Thomas A. Edison, 
William McKinley, William J. Bryan, Ulysses S. Grant? Add the 
names of others who have deserved recognition in your state or com¬ 
munity. 

QUESTIONS 

What kinds of support must any government have? 

For what three general purposes must governments spend money? 
Give examples of expenditures for each purpose. Which of these 
must be met by the national government, which by the state, and 
which by the local government? 


446 


Supporting the Government 


What is a tax? What qualities appear in a good tax? Distinguish 
between a direct and an indirect tax. Define proportional tax; gradu¬ 
ated tax; excise; customs; specific duties; ad valorem. Can a tax be 
based on benefits received from the government? From what sources 
does the national government get taxes? a state government? a local 
government? By what process are national taxes collected? state? 
local? For what other purposes besides getting money are taxes 
used? What is the effect of a protective tariff on the producer and 
on the amount of revenue? What is its purpose? 

What other sources of revenue and taxes are available for our gov¬ 
ernment? Define eminent domain. By what means do governments 
usually borrow money? When is borrowing justifiable? Of what 
use to the government are public lands? How are public buildings 
maintained? Why is a budget system desirable in administering 
finances? To what extent is it in vogue in this country? Explain 
the features of the national budget plan. 

What is meant by the single tax? Summarize the chief arguments 
for and against it. What reforms in tax collection might be desir¬ 
able? 

By what means did Americans support their government during 
the Great War? How does the constitution define treason? Is it 
easy to convict a person of this crime? 

By what means may citizens serve their government in times of 
peace? What is the value of taking an oath? Does the home life 
of the citizen affect the government? Is the life of a person at school 
of importance to the government? Are the duties or the rights of 
citizens more worthy of consideration? 


THEMES AND EXERCISES 

Making the Budget. (If your local government has public hearings 
on the budget, representatives from the class may visit them. The 
class or a committee of it might also hold a budget session itself.) 

Where Our Local Government Gets Its Revenue. 

What Our Local Government Does With Its Revenue. (For these 
last two and the following topics a chart or graph might be made. 
Perhaps this could be so drawn to show the revenues for several years.) 

How Our State Gets Revenue. 

What Our State Does With Its Money. 

How Our National Government Gets Its Money. 

What Our National Government Does With Its Money. 

How Our School Board Gets Money. 

How Our School Board Uses Its Money. 


Themes and Exercises 


447 


My Duty As a Tax Payer. 

The Federal Income Tax. 

Resolved, that a protective tariff has served its usefulness in the 
United States. 

Things Which Ought Not to Be Taxed. 

The Liberty Loans. 

The Assessment of Property in Our Community and State. 

Public Lands and Buildings in Our Community. 

Resolved, that at some time between the ages of eighteen and twenty- 
five every citizen should contribute at least six months to some form 
of public service. 

Famous Trials for Treason. 

Resolved, that no citizen should be exempted from jury service. 

Resolved, that citizens should be punished if they fail to vote at 
elections. 

My Community’s Investment in Me. 

How Our Community Could Become an Ideal Community, 



AN OBJECT-LESSON IN PATRIOTISM. 


An Oklahoma Boy Scout Saluting the Flag. 





Oklahoma Supplement 
to 

Hughes’ 

Elementary Community Civics 


By 

LUTHER HARRISON 


TO THE TEACHER 


The list of names of Oklahoma’s state officials naturally 
is constantly changing and will show many changes during 
the passing years; therefore, it is considered impracticable 
to insert the names of Oklahoma officials in this Supple- 
ment. Any teacher desiring such a list of names may 
write to the Secretary of State, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 
and it will be furnished cheerfully. 

The State Historical Society has collected an abundance 
of material concerning the history of Oklahoma and has 
compiled much valuable material illustrating incidents 
of the past. This society will be glad to furnish to the 
inquiring teacher much information not otherwise obtain¬ 
able. j 

Teachers can obtain copies of the Constitution of 
Oklahoma from the State Superintendent of Public In¬ 
struction or from the Secretary of State, Oklahoma City, 
Oklahoma. 

For information concerning the state game laws, hunt¬ 
ing licenses, etc., letters should be addressed to the 
State Game Warden, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. 

The teacher desiring information concerning state 
schools or private schools should address the State Super¬ 
intendent of Public Instruction, Oklahoma City, Okla¬ 
homa. 


CHAPTER XV 


HISTORY AND EARLY GOVERNMENT OF 
OKLAHOMA 

228. Early History.—Oklahoma is one of the young¬ 
est of the states. Although the counties of the Oklahoma 
territory had been under a constitutional form of govern¬ 
ment since 1890, there had been, especially in the eastern 



THE RUSH OF THE SETTLERS, APRIL 22, 1889. 


part of the state, little or no organized government before 
the territory became a state on November 16, 1907. 

The first government ever known in what is now 
Oklahoma was the tribal government of the Indians. 
Long before the white man reached the state, barbarous 
tribes lived in scattered villages and administered a crude 
form of government in an imperfect way. Among such 

451 




452 


Early History 


tribes were the Osage, Quapaw, Caddo, Wichita, Waco, 
Tonkawa, Kiowa, Comanche, Apache of the Plains, and 
others. Each of these tribes had its chief, usually but 
not always elected, and a council of elders or headmen. 
The chief was final authority in all tribal matters. In case 
of lawlessness a small fine, usually a pony, satisfied the 
law and released the offender. In case of murder, the 
murderer was executed, usually by some relative or friend 
of the victim. 

Although the territory now comprising Oklahoma was 
from time to time claimed by Spain, France, England, or 
Mexico, none of these nations made any systematic effort 
to explore its wilds or to establish any system of laws. 1 

During the eleven years that Oklahoma remained a 
part of Arkansas no counties were organized and no 
government introduced. While the laws of Arkansas 
were in force theoretically they were not in force practi¬ 
cally. Then in 1830 Indian Territory was created by an 
Act of Congress. A vast area that included not only 
Oklahoma but Kansas and Nebraska as well was set apart 
by the President as a home for such Indian tribes as 
might choose to leave their eastern lands and locate in the 
West. 

By 1846 Oklahoma had been entered by the Five 
Civilized Tribes, each of which brought with it an im¬ 
proved form of tribal government. The Cherokee had 
their capital at Tahlequah, the Creek at Okmulgee, the 
Choctaw at Tushkahoma, the Chickasaw at Tishomingo, 
and the Seminole at Wewoka. The governments main¬ 
tained by these powerful tribes was far superior to that 
maintained by the earlier savages, but far less efficient than 
the government soon to be introduced by the white man. 
Each tribe had its governor and its council, each had its 


'In 1819, Louisiana, which had been purchased for the United States by Thomas 
Jefferson and which included Oklahoma, was divided; and the territory of Arkansas 
was organized. Oklahoma was included in the original area of Arkansas. 



Oklahoma Territory 453 

laws that were faithfully enforced, and each had its 
written constitution. In Indian elections the secret 
ballot was unknown. Voters simply lined up and were 
counted by tellers, the affirmative standing in line on one 
side of the street, the negative in line on the other side. 

The old tribal governments practically passed out of 
existence when Oklahoma became a state. While some 
authority to deal with purely tribal affairs remained, the 
Indians as individuals became citizens of the state, par¬ 
ticipating in its elections, helping to select its officials, 
paying taxes for its support, and subject to its laws. 

For a generation preceding state government there was 
little government known among the white people of 
Indian Territory. The federal district courts at Ft. 
Smith, Arkansas, and Paris, Texas, had jurisdiction over 
crime in the Five Civilized Nations and offenders were 
taken to one of those cities for trial. The only laws in 
force were acts of the national Congress at Washington. 

Here and there small towns sprang up, organized by the 
authority of federal statutes, and operated according to 
federal requirements. Taxation was practically unknown. 

What early Indian tribes inhabited the land which is now Okla¬ 
homa? When was the Indian Territory created? What five tribes 
came in later? How were they governed? What other government 
was there? 

229. Oklahoma Territory. —Territorial government 
began in Oklahoma Territory in May, 1890, when the 
entire territory consisted of only seven counties. George 
W. Steele of Indiana became first governor. Under the 
prevailing law the President appointed the governor and 
territorial secretary. The governor appointed all other 
executive officers and the officers of newly organized 
counties as well. The legislature consisted of a council 
composed of thirteen members and a house of representa¬ 
tives with twenty-six members. The first meeting of the 
legislature was delayed ten days until enough members to 


454 


Early History 

transact business were present. The statutes of Nebraska 
became the laws of the territory until the legislature 
should enact a new code of laws. Guthrie was the capital 
and remained the official seat of government for three 
years after the territory became a state. 

The region subject to the territorial government of 
Oklahoma was rapidly enlarged as new reservations were 
opened to settlement and new counties organized. 

Give some cases of rapid growth in population. How long was 
Oklahoma a territory? 

230. Statehood.—On November 16, 1907, Oklahoma 



OKLAHOMA CITY, APRIL 26, 1889. 


entered the union as a state under a written constitution 
which had been approved by the voters by a majority of 
107,000. The splendid government already in force in 
the western portion of the territory, strengthened and im¬ 
proved by provisions of the new constitution, was made 
effective also in the unorganized eastern portion of the 
territory. This was the real beginning of constitutional 
government in Oklahoma in so far as local government 
was concerned and marked the beginning of a period of 
development that has few equals in American history. 
During this period additional counties were organized, 






Statehood 


455 


county government was instituted throughout the eastern 
portion of the state, schools for hundreds of thousands of 
children were opened, local courts were established, and 
local laws began to be administered. 

The latest available figures show that Oklahoma has an 
area of 69,414 square miles, a population in 1920 of 
2,028,283. She had in 1920 191,987 farms, 1,195 post 
offices, 107,916 miles of highways, 6,536 miles of railroads, 
307,000 automobiles, 226,000 telephones, and now ranks as 



THE FIRST POST OFFICE AT OKLAHOMA CITY 


one of the three leading oil-producing states of the union. 

In 1923 Oklahoma ranked first in the production 
of broom corn, third in the production of grain sorghums, 
fourth in the production of cotton, and eighth in the pro¬ 
duction of wheat. Her manufactured products in 1919 
were valued at $425,000,000—including flour and grist 
mill products, lumber, packing plant products, and cotton 
seed products. In 1920 the native-born white population 






456 


Early History 

of Oklahoma was 89.8 per cent of the total, the Indian 
population was 2.8 per cent, while the negro population 
was 7.4 per cent. 

During the Great War Oklahoma furnished nearly 
90,000 men for military service at the lowest per capita 
cost for their mobilization of all the states in the Union. 
As many Oklahomians were killed in action as the total 
number from any two states that border on Oklahoma. 
For the prosecution of the war she furnished more than her 
proportionate share of both men and money. 

What is the population of Oklahoma? The area? In what 
product does she excel all other states? What remarkable war 
record did she make? 

231. The Future.—While the past of Oklahoma has 
been worthy and her history memorable, her future 
promises to be still more creditable. But her future will 
depend altogether on what the boys and girls now in her 
schools make of it. If they choose to be law-loving, 
law-abiding, and industrious citizens, if they learn all 
that the schools can teach them and depend on themselves 
rather than upon the government for success; if they 
keep alive in their hearts the same principles that in¬ 
spired the sturdy souls that founded and have maintained 
our government—then the future of Oklahoma will be 
secure. 

—Luther Harrison. 

Upon what does the future of Oklahoma depend? 

QUESTIONS 

What countries have claimed the territory which is now the state 
of Oklahoma? Point out differences in the forms of government of the 
early Indians and the Five Civilized Tribes. Did the Indian Territory 
include all of Oklahoma? 

In what territory was Oklahoma included before the Indian 
Territory was created? What federal district courts had jurisdiction 
in Oklahoma before it became a territory? 


Themes and Exercises 


457 


When did Oklahoma become a territory? Who was the first 
governor? When did it become a state? In what products does it 
excel? 


THEMES AND EXERCISES 

A Case of Remarkable Growth (consult some of the early settlers). 
The Present Position of the Indian. 

Oklahoma’s Chief Agricultural Products. 

The Discovery of Oil. 

What Oklahoma Manufactures. 

The Government of the Early Indians. 

Government under the Five Civilized Tribes. 

The Growth in Population, 

Oklahoma’s War Record. 

The Future of the State. 


CHAPTER XVI 

ORGANIZATION OF STATE GOVERNMENT 

232. Distribution of Powers.—In the distribution of 
governmental powers the government of Oklahoma is 
modeled after that of the United States. Our state 
government is divided into three separate, distinct, and 
independent branches, viz.: 

1. The Executive Department, which is charged with 
enforcing the law. 

2. The Legislative Department, which makes the laws. 

3. The Judicial Department, which interprets and 
administers the law. 

No one of these departments has any control over the 
others, though each within limits provided by the con¬ 
stitution can restrain another department when it at¬ 
tempts to violate the law. 

By exercising the veto power the executive can restrain 
the legislative department. 

The legislative department can restrain the illegal acts 
of both executive and judiciary by exercising the power 
of impeachment. 

The judiciary can nullify any legislative act that is 
unconstitutional and can prevent illegal action by the 
executive. 

But the power each department possesses over the 
others is a restraining power; none of them can order 
another department to perform any service of a positive 
nature. Our entire governmental system is founded on 
the theory that it is not well for any department of gov¬ 
ernment to enjoy unrestrained power. Each must be 
458 


The Governor 


459 


free from all interference in the pursuit of its duties, but 
subject to restraint when over-stepping its legal boun¬ 
daries. 

What are the three divisions of the state government? What is 
the work of each division? Who is governor at the present time? 
This distribution of powers is sometimes called a system of “checks 
and balances.” Can you explain why? 

233. The Executive Department.—The governor of the 
state is at the head of the executive department and is 
sometimes called the “chief executive.” Other executive 
officers are the lieutenant-governor, state treasurer, state 
auditor, commissioner of insurance, superintendent of 
public instruction, mine inspector, attorney general, 
clerk of the supreme court, commissioner of charities and 
corrections, commissioner of labor, state examiner and 
inspector, secretary of state, and such other officers as 
may be provided by law. Each of these is elected for a 
term of four years, their official tenure beginning the 
second Tuesday in the January following their election. 
Neither the governor, secretary of state, state auditor, 
nor state treasurer is eligible to re-election. 

Who are the chief executive officers? For how long are they 
elected? Which ones may not be re-elected? 

234. The Governor.—The governor must be a male 
citizen of the United States, at least thirty years old, and 
must have been a qualified elector of Oklahoma at least 
three years. 

The governor is commander-in-chief of the state 
militia, except when it is in federal service, and may call 
out the militia to execute the laws, protect the public 
health, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions. He 
may call the legislature or the senate only into extraordi¬ 
nary session. He shall cause the laws of the state to be 
enforced and must conduct in person all business of the 


460 State Government 

state with the government of the United States or the other 
states,. 

Immediately upon the organization of the legislature 
the governor must submit a message to the two houses 
meeting together which sets forth the condition of the 
state’s business and his recommendations for new laws. 
He may submit additional messages from time to time as 
he sees fit. 

The governor also has the power to grant pardons. 



THE STATE CAPITOL. 


paroles, commutations, or reprieves to those who have 
been convicted of crimes. A pardon is the complete revo¬ 
cation of a sentence and frees the person convicted of 
all legal restraint. A parole is the suspension of a sen¬ 
tence for an indefinite time. A commutation is the re¬ 
duction in severity of a sentence; for instance, the death 
penalty may be reduced to life imprisonment. A re¬ 
prieve is a stay of execution for a definite time. 

The governor has no power to grant a pardon or stay 
of execution of any character when any officer of the state 



















Other Administrative Officers 


461 


is impeached; he must submit to each legislative session 
a full statement of all pardons, paroles, and the like, 
granted during the two years preceding, giving the names 
and addresses of all parties thus favored, together with 
the names of the crimes for which they were convicted. 

The governor has also the power of signing or vetoing 
all bills passed by the legislature. He shall commission 
all officers not otherwise commissioned by law, and he shall 
make appointments to fill certain vacancies. He may 
adjourn the legislature when it is unable to agree on a time 
for adjournment. 

What are the governor’s chief duties? When may he send a mes¬ 
sage to the legislature? When must he do so? What is the difference 
between a pardon, a parole, a commutation, and a reprieve? 

235. Other Administrative Officers.—The Lieuten¬ 
ant-Governor must possess the same qualifications as the 
governor. It is his duty to preside over the senate, but 
he has no vote save only in case of a tie. If the governor 
fails to qualify, or if for any reason the office of governor 
becomes vacant, the lieutenant-governor shall succeed 
him and fill the vacancy. 

It is the duty of the Secretary of State to keep a register 
of all the official acts of the governor, be guardian of the 
“great seal of the state,” and perform such other duties 
as the law may prescribe. 

The State Examiner and Inspector must have had three 
years’ experience as an expert accountant. It is his duty 
to examine without notice twice each year the books, 
accounts, and cash on hand of the state and county trea¬ 
surers. He shall also prescribe a uniform system of book¬ 
keeping for the use of all treasurers. 

The Insurance Commissioner has general supervision 
of the enforcement of the insurance laws of the state. 

The State Treasurer is the custodian of all state funds: 
he receives all state taxes collected and pays the bills 


462 


State Government 


of the state on warrants issued by the state auditor. He 
deposits state funds in accredited banks, giving sufficient 
security to guarantee its safety, the interest on such 
deposits belonging to the state. 

The State Auditor passes on all claims against the state 
and issues warrants on the state treasurer to pay such 
claims. He is also charged by law with the duty of col¬ 
lecting the gross production tax, the state income tax, 
and other special taxes. 

The Superintendent of Public Instruction stands at the 
head of the state’s educational system. He has general 
supervision of all schools of the state. He instructs school 
officers as to what the school laws are, receives reports 
from county and city schools, and collects educational 
statistics. The questions for teachers’ examinations are 
prepared under his supervision. He also is charged with 
the duty of apportioning the state school funds to the dif¬ 
ferent counties. 

The Mine Inspector must have had eight years’ practical 
experience as a miner. It is his duty to inspect the vari¬ 
ous mines of the state and see that the laws passed for the 
protection and well-being of the miners are enforced. 

The Attorney-General is the chief lawyer for the state. 
He represents the “Commonwealth of Oklahoma” when 
it brings suit against a person or is sued by some one. 
He also lends aid to the county attorneys of the state in 
the interpretation of state laws. 

The Clerk of the Supreme Court keeps a record of all 
proceedings before the court. He also has charge of all 
papers in pending cases. 

It is the duty of the Commissioner of Charities and 
Corrections to inspect the jails, reformatories, and peni¬ 
tentiaries of the state, issue directions concerning the 
improvement and management of such institutions, and 
make a full and complete report of such work to the 
governor. 


Themes and Exercises 


463 


The Commissioner of Labor is head of the state depart¬ 
ment of labor, has general supervision of the enforcement 
of labor laws, and assists in the settlement of strikes and 
other troubles between workmen and their employers. 

The Corporation Commission consists of three members 
whose term of office is six years. At each biennial elec¬ 
tion one commissioner is elected. The principal duty of 
the commission is to regulate the rates charged for 
service by the various public service corporations of the 
state. Much of the power granted the commission by 
the state constitution and state laws has been taken from 
the commission by federal statutes and court decisions. 

What are the duties of the lieutenant-governor? of the secretary 
of state? of the state treasurer? Name five other executive officers. 
What are the duties of each? Who has charge of the state’s educa¬ 
tional system? 

QUESTIONS 

Which branch of the state government makes the laws? How 
are the laws enforced? Who interprets the laws? Which branch has 
the power of impeachment? 

In what two ways can the acts of the legislature be made void? 
Can the lieutenant-governor veto a bill when the governor is out of 
the state? Which do you think is the most important power of the 
governor? Which three officers have most to do with state funds 
and accounts? 

What are the duties of the state superintendent of public instruc¬ 
tion? Who occupies this office at the present time? What are the 
duties of the commissioner of labor? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Duties of the Governor. 

What the Lieutenant-Governor Does. 

The School System of Oklahoma. 

Checking the Accuracy of the State Treasurer’s Accounts. 

The State’s Efforts to Help in Labor Disputes. 

The Work of the Attorney-General. 


CHAPTER XVII 


THE MAKING OF STATE LAWS 

236. The Legislature.—The law-making power in 
Oklahoma is vested in the state legislature, which consists 
of two separate and independent bodies: the state senate, 
consisting of forty-four members elected for a term of four 
years, and the house of representatives, consisting of 
about 100 members, elected for a term of two years. 

Regular meetings of the legislature occur on the first 
Tuesday after the first Monday of January of each odd- 
numbered year. The sessions are held in the respective 
chambers of the senate and the house on the fourth floor 
of the state capitol building in Oklahoma City. 

Regular sessions of the legislature were originally sup¬ 
posed to terminate at the end of sixty days, but no ses¬ 
sion has ever failed to last a good many days longer. For 
the first sixty days of the session the legislators each re¬ 
ceive $6.00 a day; when the sixty days have expired they 
receive only $2.00 a day. 

Special sessions of the legislature may be called by 
proclamation of the governor at any time he considers 
such session necessary. During a special legislative session 
the law-making body can consider only such matters as 
the governor has chosen to recommend in his message. 

What two bodies make up the legislature? When does the legis¬ 
lature meet? What is the rate of pay for the first sixty days? Why is 
the pay reduced after sixty days? 

237. The Senate.—The senate differs from the house 
in being the smaller body numerically, though it is often 

464 


The Senate 


465 



mentioned as the higher or more important body, in en¬ 
joying a four-year tenure instead of two years, in possess¬ 
ing the constitutional power of confirming or rejecting 
many of the governor’s appointees, and in the power of 
sitting as a court of impeachment. 

Each two years at the regular November election twenty- 
two senators are elected. This arrangement gives the 
senate the nature of a perpetual organization, since only 


SOME OF OKLAHOMA’S WOODLAND. 

one-half its membership retire every two years. However, 
the senate perfects a new organization at the beginning of 
each regular session. The lieutenant-governor by virtue 
of his office presides over the sessions of the senate except 
when the senate is sitting as a court of impeachment, when 
the chief justice or some associate justice of the supreme 
court presides. The senate also elects at the time of its 
organization a president pro tempore , who presides when 
the lieutenant-governor for any reason is absent. 




466 


Making State Laws 

The constitution fixes the qualifications o/ senators. 
According to the terms of that instrument no one is 
eligible to serve as senator who has not attained the age 
of twenty-five years, who is not a legal citizen of the 
United States and of Oklahoma, and who is not a resident 
of the district he seeks to represent. 

What are the qualifications of senators? How often are they 
elected and for how long? Who presides over the senate? 

238. The House.—The house differs from the senate 
in having only a two-year term instead of a four-year 
term, in lacking the privilege of passing on appointments 
made by the governor, and in lacking the power of sitting 
as a court of impeachment. However, it has the ex¬ 
clusive right to originate all bills seeking to raise revenue, 
with the additional right to institute impeachment pro¬ 
ceedings. It prefers charges against such state officers 
as it considers guilty of offences warranting impeachment, 
while the senate sitting as a trial court tries those charges. 

The entire membership of the house is elected at each 
regular state election. Upon convening the house elects 
one of its own members presiding officer, who thereby 
becomes officially “the Speaker of the house.” It also 
elects another member “Speaker Pro Tempore.” 

Each house works very largely through its standing 
committees, such committees being charged with the 
consideration of those bills over which it is supposed to 
have jurisdiction. 

Who presides over the house? What is the difference between the 
duties of house and senate? 

239. Making the Laws.—When proposed laws are first 
introduced in the legislature they are known as bills. 
Every bill when introduced must contain on its cover 
a written or typewritten statement of its subject matter, 
this statement being known as its “Title.” 


467 


Making the Laws 

When a bill is introduced its title is read in open session, 
this being the “first reading” of the bill. On the next 
legislative day it has its “second reading,” and is then 
referred to the committee having jurisdiction over the 
subject covered by the bill. 

A committee is supposed to hold the bill for ten days 
though it may be kept even longer if there is no objection 
or if the committee is authorized to do so by vote of the 
house; but it may also report the bill out in less than ten 
days. This ten-day rule is rarely followed in either house. 

The committee may report the bill favorably or un¬ 
favorably; in the absence of an order to the contrary, it 
may keep the bill indefinitely and let it die in committee. 
If the committee report is favorable, the bill is returned 
in open session marked “Do Pass.” Unfavorable action 
is noted by the mark, “Do Not Pass.” If the committee 
cannot agree, it frequently brings in two reports, “Do 
Pass” and “Do Not Pass,” such reports being known as 
majority and minority reports; whereupon the house must 
accept the report it prefers. 

After a bill has been reported out of committee and re¬ 
ceived any revision or amendment that the members of 
the house may desire, it is placed finally on “third reading 
and final passage.” Here it is read at length. The roll 
is then called, those favoring its passage voting “Aye,” 
those opposing it voting “No.” If it receives a majority 
of the entire membership of the body it is declared passed, 
is signed by the presiding officer in open session, and is 
then sent to the other house. Here it must go through 
exactly the same procedure that has attended its passage 
through the house where it originated. 

When a bill has been passed by both houses it is then 
enrolled (written out in long hand), signed by the presiding 
officers of both houses, and sent by messenger to the 
governor for his approval or disapproval. If he ap¬ 
proves the bill, he signs it and sends it to the office of the 


468 



Making State Laws 

secretary of state, where it is filed in the permanent 
records of the state. 

If the governor disapproves the bill he is said to “veto” 
it, or forbid its enactment. He returns the bill to the 
house where it originated accompanied by a written 
statement of his reasons for vetoing it. If the legislature 
so desires it can pass the bill over the governor’s veto, 


A WELL-BUILT ROAD. 

providing it receives the vote of two-thirds of the entire 
membership of both houses. 

If while the legislature is in session the governor fails 
to sign or veto a bill within five days of his receiving it, 
it shall become a law without his signature. If, however, 
the legislature has adjourned sine die, the governor must 
sign all bills within fifteen days of such adjournment, else 
all bills failing to obtain his signature will die. 

Laws enacted by the legislature become effective ninety 









Elections 


469 

days after final adjournment. However, the legislature 
by a two-thirds vote of both houses may declare any 
measure an “emergency” measure, whereupon it becomes 
effective immediately on receiving the approval of the 
governor. 

Upon the expiration of each legislative session all the 
bills passed during the session are printed and bound in 
a book called the “Session Laws.” Every ten years the 
laws are collected in a single work sometimes called the 
“Code” or the “Revised Statutes.” 

Several limitations on the power of the legislature have 
been imposed by the constitution, among which are the 
inhibition on all special or local legislation and the pro¬ 
vision that no revenue-raising measures shall be con¬ 
sidered during the last five days of the session. 

What steps are necessary before a bill may become a law? In 
what two ways may a bill fail? If the governor fails to sign a bill 
while the legislature is in session, what becomes of it? What be¬ 
comes of it if he does not sign it after the legislature has adjourned? 

240. Elections. —A legal election is held in all the vot¬ 
ing precincts of Oklahoma on the Tuesday following the 
first Monday of November of each even-numbered year. 
At that election any legal citizen (man or woman) who has 
lived in Oklahoma twelve months, in his county six 
months, and in his voting precinct thirty days, can vote 
provided he has registered according to law or is able to 
convince the election inspector that he is entitled to 
vote. 

On the first Tuesday of August preceding the election 
every two years, primary or nominating elections are 
held to nominate party candidates for office. Every 
voter is required to vote in the primary of that party in 
which he is registered as a voter. The voter receiving the 
highest number of votes is declared the nominee for the 
office he is seeking. 


470 


Making State Laws 


What are the requirements for voting in Oklahoma? On what 
date are regular elections held? When do the primary elections oc¬ 
cur? 


QUESTIONS 

How many members has the senate? About how many has the 
house? Which is the more permanent organization? For how many 
years are the members of each elected? 

Do you think the pay of the legislators is sufficient? How may 
special sessions be called? When do the regular meetings occur? 

Which branch initiates financial legislation? Which may institute 
impeachment proceedings? Which sits as a court in cases of im¬ 
peachment? What are the qualifications of a senator? of a voter? 
In what ways may a bill fail to become a law? 

Who presides over the senate? Over the house? Can you name 
the two presiding officers at the present time? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Work of the Senate. 

Special Functions of the House. 

Various Steps in the Passage of a Bill. 

The Work of Committees. 

Session Laws. 

Revised Statutes. 

Regular Elections. 

Primary Elections. 


CHAPTER XVIII 


THE INTERPRETATION OF STATE LAWS 

241. The Judiciary. —The Judicial Department is 
charged with interpretation of the law, administration 
of justice in the trial of actions, and protection of the 
rights of the people in the courts of the state. It exer¬ 
cises an effective restraint on the Legislative Department 
through its power to determine whether the laws that 
the legislature has enacted agree with the constitution. 1 

How does the Judiciary protect the people’s rights? 

242. The Supreme Court.— The Supreme Court is the 
highest court in the state. It is composed of nine judges, 
each elected for a term of six years and each receiving an 
annual salary of $6,000. At the beginning of each year 
the court elects one of its members to preside during the 
year, who thereupon becomes the Chief Justice. The 
other members are known as Associate Justices. 

The duty of the Chief Jus 'ice is to preside over the 
court while it is in session and in cases of impeachment to 
preside over the senate. In the event the Chief Justice 
is disqualified to preside over an impeachment court, it 
is his duty to designate one of the Associate Justices to 
preside in his stead. If all of them are disqualified, the 
senate elects one of its own number to preside. 

All decisions of the Supreme Court on questions that 
are tried before it must be handed down in writing and 
a majority of the judges must approve a decision before it 

iBy making clear what the law is and preventing its abuse this department of the 
state government has a large influence in the preservation of the people’s rights. 

471 



472 Interpreting the Laws 

can become the decision of the court. Those who do not 
agree with the decision of the majority may hand down a 
dissenting opinion, giving their reasons for disagreement 
with the opinion of the majority. 

How is the Chief Justice chosen? What are his duties? 

243. Other Courts and Judicial Bodies.—The Crim¬ 
inal Court of Appeals is in many respects similar to the 


A TYPICAL OKLAHOMA RESIDENCE. 

Supreme Court. It has charge of criminal cases that have 
been tried in the lower courts but in which the decisions 
have been “appealed.” This court is composed of three 
judges, who receive the same annual salary as the su¬ 
preme judges of the Supreme Court. 

District Courts. For the purpose of maintaining 
courts of justice within easy reach of the people the state 
is divided into districts, composed of one or more counties 








Courts and Judicial Bodies 


473 


each, and each district has one or more district judges. 
The number of counties in a district and the number of 
judges in the district are in each instance determined very 
largely by the population and amount of litigation in the 
district. District judges must be 30 years of age and 
must have been practicing attorneys for at least five years 
at the time of their election. Each judge receives an 
annual salary of $4,000. 

District Courts have jurisdiction of all felonies com¬ 
mitted in their district and of many misdemeanors; and 
such other cases from outside their district as may be 
transferred for trial on what is called “a change of venue.” 
When a defendant is able to convince the court that he 
is unable to secure an impartial trial in his county, his 
case may be transferred for trial to another county or even 
to another district. This is called “change of venue.” 

It is the duty of the District Judge to preside at the 
selection of juries for the trial of cases, while the testimony 
of witnesses is being taken, and during the arguments of 
counsel. Upon the closing of testimony it is the duty of 
the judge to instruct the jury as to the meaning and ap¬ 
plication of the law in the case. If the jury finds itself 
unable to agree, it becomes the duty of the judge to dis¬ 
charge the jury and order another trial of the case. If 
the jury finds the defendant guilty of the charge against 
him, it is the duty of the court to pass sentence on the 
accused person. 

The District Judge may impanel a Grand Jury to 
investigate general conditions of lawlessness in the dis¬ 
trict or some special offense. He must instruct the Grand 
Jury as to the law governing its activities, receive its final 
report, and discharge it when its labors are ended. 

Several cities of the state have what is known as a 
Superior Court. This is a court created by special act 
of the legislature and usually has the same kind of 
authority as that exercised by the District Court of the 



474 Interpreting the Laws 

district in which it is located. A Superior Judge must 
have the same qualifications as a District Judge and re¬ 
ceives the same annual salary. 

County Courts. Every Oklahoma county has a County 
Judge. He must be at least 30 years of age and 
must have been a practicing attorney for at least three 
years. He is elected for a term of two years, and his 
salary depends upon the population of the county that 
elects him. 

The County Court has original jurisdiction in civil 


LOADING ALFALFA. 

cases not involving more than one thousand dollars and 
in criminal cases less than felonies. It has appellate 
jurisdiction in cases appealed from justice courts and city 
courts. A jury in the County Court is composed of six 
men, five of whom may return a verdict. 

Juvenile Court. The County Judge is also judge of the 
juvenile court and has jurisdiction over offenses committed 
by children too young to be tried in the regular criminal 







Themes and Exercises 


475 


courts. At his discretion he may commit juvenile delin¬ 
quents, truants, and incorrigibles to the state reform 
school. 

One of the most important duties of the County Judge 
is that of admitting wills to probate, and of distributing 
the property of deceased persons and minors. The great 
number of Indian minors in eastern Oklahoma makes the 
office of County Judge a most important one. 

Justice Court. Each township elects two Justices of 
the Peace and cities in the first class elect one or more, 
according to their population. The jurisdiction of Jus¬ 
tice Courts is limited to civil cases involving less than 
two hundred dollars and criminal cases where the punish¬ 
ment does not exceed a fine of one hundred dollars and 
imprisonment for thirty days. No civil suit involving 
twenty dollars or less can be appealed from the Justice 
Court decision. The only qualification required of a 
justice of the peace is that he be a legal voter. 

City Court. Each city has a Police Court that has 
jurisdiction over violations of city ordinances. These 
police judges may exercise the authority of juvenile judges. 

QUESTIONS 

Name the different courts in what seems to you their order of im¬ 
portance. Why do you choose this order? Which judges have charge 
of probating wills? Which two kinds of courts may handle juvenile 
cases? 

What civil suits can not be appealed? What is the salary of judges 
of the Supreme Court? of the District Courts? of the Criminal Court 
of Appeals? What is “change of venue”? 

What is the difference between a regular trial jury and a grand 
jury? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Supreme Court of Oklahoma. 

The Work of a County Judge. 

Qualification of the Different Judges. 


CHAPTER XIX 

COUNTY AND TOWNSHIP GOVERNMENT 

244. The County.— A county is a political subdivision 
of the state, created for the purpose of administering 
local government and bringing local government within 
convenient reach of the people. Its capital or seat of 
government is known as the county seat. 

' 



ONE OF OKLAHOMA’S FARMS. 


There are seventy-seven counties in Oklahoma. Sev¬ 
enty-five of these were created by the state constitution 
adopted in 1907; two have been created by popular vote 
since the constitution was adopted. The area and popu- 
476 






County Officers 


477 


lation of the various counties vary greatly, Osage being 
more than six times as large as Murray, while Oklahoma 
and Tulsa each has approximately twenty-five times the 
population of Cimarron. 

245. How Counties Are Formed.—Under the state 
laws it is difficult to form a new county. Sixty per cent 
of the voters in the territory affected must vote in favor 
of the formation of the county. It must contain at least 
400 square miles of taxable territory, must possess a 
taxable valuation of at least $2,500,000, and must have 
at least 15,000 population. The boundary line of the 
proposed county must not be nearer than ten miles to 
the county seat of any adjoining county. These re¬ 
strictions make it so difficult to form new counties that 
it is not likely that Oklahoma will ever have many more 
counties than are now organized. 

246. The County Seat.—The county officers almost 
without exception live at the county seat, have their offices 
there, and are required by law to transact most of the 
county’s business there. The county court house is at 
the county seat and houses most or all of the county 
officers. The county jail also is found at the county seat. 
As a rule the county seat is centrally located where it can 
be most easily reached by a majority of the people. To 
remove a county seat once located by popular vote re¬ 
quires the affirmative vote of two-thirds of the voters in 
a special election held for that purpose. 

247. Tenure of Office.—Before 1924 all county of¬ 
ficials were elected for a term of two years, but in that 
year the Legislature made the official tenure of all county 
officers except county commissioners four years. The 
commissioners are now elected for six years, one of the 
three being elected every two years. 

248. County Officers.—Each county has a county 
judge, county attorney, court clerk, sheriff, county trea¬ 
surer, county weigher, county superintendent of pub- 


478 County and Township Government 

lie instruction, county assessor, and three county 
commissioners. Practically all of these appoint one or 
more deputies or clerks to assist them in their official 
duties. 

County Judge. The county judge is a part of the 
judicial machinery of the state and his duties are discussed 
under the head of ”Judicial Department.” 

County Commissioners. The county commissioners are 
the business managers and make up the “board of di¬ 
rectors” of the county. They have charge of the county 
property and have general supervision of the county’s 
business. It is their duty to check up all claims against 
the county for supplies purchased or services rendered, 
to allow or disallow such claims, to supervise the con¬ 
struction of roads and bridges, and to care for the poor 
and indigent citizens of the county. Whenever another 
county office becomes vacant, the commissioners elect 
someone to fill the vacancy. The governor of the state 
fills any vacancy that may occur on the board of county 
commissioners. The first duty usually performed by the 
board when it meets is to elect one of its number chairman 
of the board. 

Sheriff. The sheriff is the chief law enforcement 
officer of the county. It is his duty to enforce the laws, 
make arrests, preserve the public peace, and enforce the 
orders of the court. It is also his duty to wait on the 
court when it is in session and summon jurors and wit¬ 
nesses. He has charge of the county jail and is re¬ 
sponsible for the care of the prisoners. He also appoints 
several deputies,- any one of whom may perform any 
duty devolving on the sheriff. 

County Clerk. The county clerk may be termed the 
bookkeeper of the county. He keeps and publishes a 
record of the proceedings of the county commissioners, 
signs all warrants drawn on the county treasurer, and 
keeps a record of all the deeds filed in his office, preserving 


County Officers 479 

a true copy of all deeds and real estate mortgages in his 
county. Titles to lands are shown by the records pre¬ 
served in the office of the county clerk. 

Superintendent of Public Instruction. It is the duty of 
the superintendent of public instruction to superintend 
all the schools of his county that are outside cities of the 
first class. Four times each year he conducts an ex¬ 
amination for teachers, issues licenses to such teachers as 
successfully pass the examination, revokes the licenses of 



A TYPICAL RURAL SCENE. 


teachers for sufficient cause, fills vacancies on school 
boards by appointment, apportions school funds to the 
various districts, calls special school meetings, and ap¬ 
points teachers for the separate schools. 

Court Clerk. It is the duty of the court clerk to keep 
a record of all cases filed in the district and county courts, 
to attend the sessions of these courts and keep a record 
of their proceedings, issue marriage licenses, keep a 
record of all marriages performed in his county, and col- 





480 County and Township Government 

lect the costs of actions in the courts of which he is clerk. 

County Attorney. The county attorney is the lawyer 
for the county. He prosecutes those charged with vio¬ 
lating the laws, and gives advice concerning the law 
to the county commissioners and other county officials. 

County Treasurer. The county treasurer is the col¬ 
lector of county taxes and the custodian of county funds. 
He is eligible to serve only two terms and must give a 
heavy bond for the security of the money in his pos¬ 
session. 

County Weigher. The county weigher may be said 
to be custodian of weights and measures. He makes a 
record of the weight of cotton, grain, live stock and other 
farm products sold on the public markets. His weights 
are official and must be accepted by purchasers and sellers. 

County Surveyor. The county surveyor makes sur¬ 
veys of lands in the county on the request of interested 
parties. 

County Assessor. The county assessor assesses all the 
property of his county for purposes of taxation, makes up 
the tax rolls, and delivers the rolls to the county treasurer, 
who collects the taxes. 

Who are the chief county officers? Who has charge of the coun¬ 
ty’s business? Who looks after education in the county? How are 
county taxes raised? 

249. Township Government.—For about six years 
after Oklahoma Territory became a state, every township 
in Oklahoma had what is known as township government, 
electing four township officers: trustee, clerk, treasurer, 
and road overseer. In 1913, the legislature abolished 
township government in thirty-three counties, leaving 
the law in force in the others. Under the present law 
township government may be abolished or re-adopted by 
a majority vote of the voters of any county. 

Officers. Township officers are elected as other county 


Themes and Exercises 


481 


officials. The township board, consisting of all the 
township officers except the Road Overseer, levies taxes 
for township roads, bridges, and other purposes, and 
passes on the payment of all claims against the township. 
When township government is abolished in any county 
the duties of the township board are assumed by the 
county commissioners. 

Townships Distinguished. The pupil should be careful 
not to confuse the political township with the congres¬ 
sional township. The political township is of no certain 
size and is organized for purposes of local government. 
The congressional township is a tract of land six miles 
square, containing thirty-six sections of 640 acres each. 
It has nothing to do with government as such, but is 
simply an approved way of measuring land. 

What are the township officers? How are they chosen? Who 
takes their places if a township is abolished? What is a congres¬ 
sional township? 


QUESTIONS 

How many counties has Oklahoma? 

What is the object of county organization? 

How may new counties be formed? 

For how long are most county officials elected? 

How are vacancies in county offices filled? 

What are the duties of county commissioners? 

What is the difference between a political and a congressional 
township? 


THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Chief County Officers. 

The Duties of the Sheriff. 

The Work of the County Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
Laying and Collecting the County Tax. 

The Organization of a Political Township. 


CHAPTER XX 


TOWN AND CITY GOVERNMENT 

250. Its Place in Oklahoma.—Very little government 
is needed in sparsely settled areas, but as population in¬ 
creases there is a corresponding increase in the needs 



A TYPICAL CITY SCENE. 


for government. In a thinly settled country there are 
usually found few laws and a low rate of taxation; in 
densely settled communities we usually find many laws 
and a high rate of taxation. So long as American states 
were thinly populated they had but few laws regulating 
the conduct of their citizens and those laws as a rule 
482 








483 


City Government 

were administered at or from the capital. Then the 
states were simply territories and had a territorial form 
of government. But an increase of population created 
a need for more laws and a greater degree of local gov¬ 
ernment; hence the territories became states, state 
constitutions were adopted, laws multiplied, and taxes 
increased. 

As it was with the states so it has been with communi¬ 
ties. Increasing population has converted rural com¬ 
munities into towns and developed towns into cities. 
City government was first instituted to deal with the 
many new problems incident to city life. Among those 
problems were those of sanitation, demanding sewerage 
and an adequate water supply; and transportation, de¬ 
manding sidewalks and paving. Many other problems 
peculiar to cities came into being, each demanding at¬ 
tention from a local government. Thus in addition to 
national, state, and county government, we have city 
government. 

Outline the development of state and local government. 

251. Town Government. —A town is a community 
containing less than 2,000 people; or a municipality of 
more than 2,000 population that has not yet voted to 
become a city of the first class. Each town has at least 
three and not more than seven wards. Each ward elects 
one member of the Town Council. The Council itself 
elects one of its own members President of the Council. 
The Council also adopts the ordinances governing the 
town, levies the annual tax to support town govern¬ 
ment, and performs such other duties as the law pre¬ 
scribes. Other town officers are: Justice of the Peace, 
Town Clerk, Treasurer, and Marshal. 

What constitutes a town? How many wards must a town have? 
How many may it have? 

252. City Government.— Any town having a popula- 


484 


Town and City Government 


tion of 2,000 may become a city by popular vote. Okla¬ 
homa has only one class of cities and they are known as 
cities of the first class. A city may have the statutory 
form of government or the charter form. Unless a city 
has framed and adopted a charter for its government, it has 
the form prescribed by the statutes or laws of the state. 

Statutory Form. Under the statutory form of govern- 



A MODERN OKLAHOMA SCHOOL. 


ment cities are divided into not less than four wards, 
each ward electing two members of the City Council. 
The other elective officers are the Mayor, City Clerk, and 
City Treasurer, each elected from the city at large. 
The City Attorney, Chief of Police, and other necessary 
officers are appointed by the Mayor and confirmed by the 
Council. All city officers are elected for a term of two 
years at a city election held the first Tuesday in April 
of odd years, and receive such compensation as the city 





Questions 485 

ordinances may provide. In cities of less than 12,000 
population the Mayor acts as Police Judge. 

The three departments of state government are du¬ 
plicated in the government of a city. The Council in 
adopting city laws known as city ordinances acts in a 
legislative capacity. The Mayor while acting as Police 
Judge serves in a judicial capacity. The other officers 
are executives. 

Charter Government. A city of the first class may 
institute charter government by electing two freeholders 
from each ward to frame a city charter. When such char¬ 
ter has been adopted by a majority vote of the people 
and approved by the governor according to law, it be¬ 
comes the fundamental law of the city, just as the state 
constitution is the fundamental law of the state. The 
city charter must, however, be in agreement with the 
state constitution. 

The charter states the form of the city government, 
tells what officers the city may have, and fixes their terms, 
duties, and salaries. Many Oklahoma cities have adopted 
charters providing for the commiss on plan of govern¬ 
ment or the commission manager plan. The com¬ 
mission plan provides for three or more commissioners, 
each having charge of an important department of the 
city government. Under the commission-manager plan 
the elected commissioners in turn elect a City Manager 
who is usually given full power of supervision over the 
city’s business. He employs or discharges his subor¬ 
dinate officials at his discretion and is general manager of 
the city’s business. Such an arrangement centralizes re¬ 
sponsibility and is believed to insure efficient government 
with the least possible delay and at the least possible cost. 

QUESTIONS 

What is the statutory form of city government? How does it differ 
from the charter form? Which is the more uniform? What is the 
commission-manager plan? 


486 


Town and City Government 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

The Development of a Community. 

The Chief Officers of a City. 

The Commission-Manager Plan of City Government. 
Statutory vs. Charter Government. 




CHAPTER XXI 


EDUCATION AND WELFARE 

253. Educational Progress.—Since Oklahoma en¬ 
tered the American Union in 1907 greater attention has 
been paid to education than to almost any other state 
enterprise and greater progress has been made than in 
any other field of state endeavor. When the educational 
standards of 1924 are compared with those existing in 
1907 it will be seen at once that the progress made in the 
educational field in fifteen years has been extraordinary. 

254. Indian Territory.—Before Oklahoma became an 
independent state public free schools were maintained in 
Oklahoma Territory only; in that vast and sparsely 
settled region known as the Indian Territory there were 
few schools of any character and no free schools at all. 
In the entire eastern half of what is now the state, the 
only schools to be found were short-term subscription 
schools maintained for a few months in the year by strug¬ 
gling villages and taught by unlicensed and frequently un¬ 
trained teachers. Provision had been made for teaching 
the Indian children and the children of some negro free¬ 
men, but the white children of that region were almost 
devoid of any educational facilities. 

255. Oklahoma Territory.—In the western half of the 
state—Oklahoma Territory—there were maintained by 
territorial and federal support six institutions of real 
importance; viz., the University of Oklahoma at Norman, 
the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College at 
Stillwater, the University Preparatory School at Ton- 
kawa, the three normal schools located at Edmond, Alva, 

487 


488 


Education and Welfare 


and Weatherford, and the Colored Agricultural and Nor¬ 
mal University at Langston. All of these were poorly 
equipped and of limited student enrollment. 

What educational progress was made in territorial times? 

256. Oklahoma State.— Since the beginnings of state 
government the educational system has been reorganized 
and strengthened, the educational standard of teachers 
has been raised, new school buildings have everywhere 
been erected, and hundreds of thousands of pupils brought 



THE UNIVERSITY OF 


into the schools. The educational system now in vogue 
is made up of the following types of schools: 

1. Major Colleges and Universities. 

2. Secondary Institutions, and Junior Colleges. 

3. Common Schools. 

The major schools of the state are the Lhiiversity of 
Oklahoma, Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical Col¬ 
lege, Oklahoma College for Women at Chickasha, Central 
Teachers College at Edmond, Northeastern Teachers 
College at Tahlequah, Southeastern Teachers College at 
Durant, East Central Teachers College at Ada, North- 




Educational System 489 

western Teachers College at Alva, Southwestern Teachers 
College at Weatherford, and the Colored Agricultural and 
Normal University at Langston. All of these institutions 
are crowded to capacity and are doing a wonderful work 
for the state. 

In addition to these major state schools Oklahoma has 
some excellent denominational schools in the University 
of Tulsa, Phillips University at Enid, the Presbyterian 
College for Girls at Durant, Oklahoma City College at 
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Baptist University at Shaw- 



OKLAHOMA AT NORMAN. 


nee, Bacone College at Bacone, St. Gregory’s College at 
Shawnee, and the Catholic College for Young Women at 
Guthrie. 

The secondary schools are the School of Mines at 
Wilburton, the Northeastern Oklahoma Junior College at 
Miami, the Oklahoma Military Academy at Claremore, 
the University Preparatory School at Tonkawa, the Pan¬ 
handle Agricultural and Mechanical College at Good well, 
the District Agricultural Schools at Tishomingo, Lawton, 
and Warner, the School for the Blind at Muskogee and 
the School for the Deaf at Sulphur. 





490 


Education and Welfare 


About how many colleges are there in Oklahoma? Are you 
planning to attend any of these? 

257. Common Schools.—The common schools of 
Oklahoma like those of all other states may be classified 
as grammar schools and high schools, though both are 
usually found in the same building and under the same 
management and frequently are taught by the same 
corps of teachers. The common schools of the state in 
a legal sense are known as common schools, consolidated 
schools, union graded schools, independent schools, and 
joint schools. 

Each county is divided into school districts. This was 
done immediately following the original organization of 
the counties and few new districts are now being formed. 
Each school district is organized by electing three citi¬ 
zens as members of the district school board, one of 
whom is director, one clerk, and one member. They 
serve for three years without pay. The board exercises 
general control over the school and its administration, 
employs the teachers, purchases the necessary school 
supplies, makes estimates for the needed tax levies, and 
performs such other duties as the law requires. All 
matters pertaining to the county schools are under the 
general supervision of a county school superintendent. 

Two or more adjacent school districts may unite by 
popular vote and form a consolidated district. When the 
result of such an election is certified by the county super¬ 
intendent it becomes his duty to declare the common school 
districts disorganized and the new consolidated district 
organized. The buildings of the abolished districts are 
sold or otherwise disposed of and a new building erected 
near the center of the consolidated district. Usually 
the state pays one-half the cost of the new building. 

How is each school district organized? What is a consolidated 
district? 


Annual Meetings 491 

258. Union Graded Schools.—Two or more adjacent 
common school districts may by a majority vote of the 
citizens unite to form a union graded district. Under this 
plan schools are continued in the original districts for 
the lower grades, while a central school is maintained for 
the instruction of the higher grades. 

The organization of consolidated and union graded dis¬ 
tricts has exercised a wide influence for good in the rural 
communities of the state. Under this plan high school 
courses can be offered to a great number of pupils who 
otherwise would not be able to attend high school. The 
plan also enables weak districts to maintain long-term 
schools each year. 

259. Independent Schools.—Each city of the first 
class and each incorporated town maintaining a four-year 
high school accredited by the state university is an inde¬ 
pendent district. Such schools are independent of the 
county superintendent and not subject to his supervision. 
Each independent district employs its own superintendent. 

260. Joint Schools.—A joint school district may be 
formed by the union of* adjacent districts lying in two 
different counties. Such districts are under the super¬ 
vision of the superintendent of that county in which the 
greater part of the district is located. 

What is an independent district? How does a union graded dis¬ 
trict differ from a consolidated district? 

What is the difference between these two and a joint school dis¬ 
trict? 

261. Annual Meetings.—In all school districts except 
independent districts an annual school meeting is held on 
the fourth Tuesday of every March. All qualified elec¬ 
tors, both men and women, residing in the district are 
entitled to attend these meetings and to vote. At these 
meetings the district officers are elected, the length of the 
school term and the date for its beginning are determined, 


492 


Education and Welfare 


and such other business is transacted as may be necessary. 

262. Revenue. —Schools receive money for their sup¬ 
port from district, county, and state funds. The district 
fund is derived from a direct tax levied on the property of 
the district in any amount not exceeding fifteen mills on 
a do lar of valuation. The county fund is derived from 
fines assessed, the forfeiture of bonds, and a county tax 
not to exceed two mills on the dollar valuation. 

263. School Lands.—The state school fund is derived 
largely from the rental on school lands and interest on 
the permanent state school fund. When Oklahoma was 
admitted to the Union the federal government granted to 



OKLAHOMA AGRICULTURAL AND 


the state 3,100,876 acres of land and paid the state 
$5,000,000 in cash for the use and benefits of the schools. 
A great many of the school lands have been sold and the 
proceeds placed in a permanent school fund. Most of 
the money in the permanent school fund has been loaned 
to farmers at five per cent interest per annum and secured 
by mortgage on their lands. The county and state funds 
are apportioned to the various districts of the state in 
proportion to their scholastic enumeration. It has been 
objected against this plan of apportionment that it may 
be responsible for the payment of too large a sum of 
money to a district having a large number of pupils who 









Compulsory School Attendance 493 

rarely attend school or to a district that votes a very 
short school term. It has been suggested that a better 
plan would be to apportion these funds according to the 
average daily attendance of pupils. 

When is the annual school meeting outside the independent dis¬ 
tricts? From what sources do schools derive their funds? How is 
the permanent school fund used? 

264. Separate Schools.—The laws of the state require 
that white children and negro children shall attend differ¬ 
ent schools. This law frequently results in the mainte¬ 
nance of two different schools in the same district and 
requires special rules for handling the problem. To meet 



MECHANICAL COLLEGE AT STILLWATER. 


this requirement, it is provided that in districts where 
separate schools are maintained, the children of the least 
numerous race shall attend the separate school. The 
teachers of the separate school are employed by the 
county superintendent and the schools are supported by 
a special appropriation made by the county in which 
they are located. 

265. Compulsory School Attendance.—All children 
between the ages of six and twenty-one years are entitled 
to attend school free from all tuition charges. All pupils 
between the ages of eight and sixteen are required by the 
compulsory school law to attend school at least two- 






494 


Education and Welfare 


thirds of the school term. They may* attend either the 
public or a private school. 

266. Census.—Every year a census of all children 
between the ages of six and twenty-one years is taken 
during the last fifteen days of January. This enumera¬ 
tion furnishes the basis for the distribution of county and 
state school funds to the various schools. 

How are the teachers in the “separate” schools paid? How many 
years must a pupil attend school? 

267. State Institutions.—At the time of statehood 
Oklahoma had no charitable institutions. These homes 
for the helpless, the feeble minded, and persons suffering 
from mental and other diseases dangerous to other people 
had to be erected immed ately, and since Oklahoma had 
entered the Union with the largest popu'at on of any 
state ever admitted, the task of building institutions for 
the care of the unfortunate proved quite a burden. 
Other states of equal population had been from fifty to 
more than a hundred years in building their institutions, 
but Oklahoma was required to do this work of mercy in 
less than fifteen years. 

268. Penal Institutions.—When the state of Okla¬ 
homa was formed its convicts were confined n the State 
Prison of Kansas at Lansing. As soon as possible they 
were brought back to this state and confined in a prison 
of their own building at McAlester. This penitentiary 
is now among the best in America. Later a State Re¬ 
formatory was built at Granite and a Training School for 
Incorrigible Boys at Pauls Valley. An Industrial Home 
for Incorrigible Girls has since been erected at Tecumseh, 
while a Reform School for Incorrigible Negro Boys has been 
opened at the penitentiary at McAlester. The state 
also operates a farm by convict labor at Aylesworth. 

269. Charitable Institutions.—For the treatment of 
patients suffering from nervous diseases the state main- 


Charitable Institutions 


495 


tains three highly efficient hospitals at Norman, Vinita, 
and Supply. There is also a model home for feeble¬ 
minded patients at Enid. For the treatment of tubercu¬ 
lar patients sanatoriums are maintained at Clinton and 
Talihina with one for negroes at Boley. The state like¬ 
wise has three homes for orphan children, one at Pryor, 
one at Helena, and one for negroes at Taft. 

Oklahoma has done more for her soldiers than any 



STOCK-YARDS. 


other state perhaps, maintaining for their treatment 
and comfort the Soldiers Memorial Hospital at Muskogee, 
the sanatoriums for tubercular soldiers at Sulphur, and 
a ward for nervous cases at the state hospital at Norman. 
There is a state home for Confederate soldiers at Ardmore 
and one for Union soldiers at Oklahoma City. In connec¬ 
tion with the Medical School of Oklahoma University the 
state operates the University Hospital in Oklahoma City. 






496 


Education and Welfare 


270. Fish Hatcheries.—In addition to other institu¬ 
tions, the state maintains fish hatcheries at Medicine Park 
and Durant and has made provision for still other hatch¬ 
eries in the eastern part of the state. Recently there has 
developed considerable enthusiasm for the preservation 
of fish, game, and the wild life of the state in general. 
The Isaak Walton League of America is taking a leading 
part in creating a sentiment for the preservation of wild 
life and is meeting with splendid success. The purpose 
of the organization is to protect wild life, to encourage 
true sportsmanship, and to cultivate a love for out-door 
life in America. 

How does Oklahoma take care of its unfortunates? Where are 
the convicts confined? Are they all kept in prison? What has 
Oklahoma done for her soldiers? Where are the fish hatcheries 
located? 

QUESTIONS 

What provision did the Indian Territory have for schools? When 
were free schools first established in Oklahoma? How long may 
students attend free schools now? What are some of the most 
important colleges in the state? What are the different kinds of 
districts? 

How is money raised for the schools? Who administers the county 
schools? the city schools? How did the state acquire its school lands? 
What has it done with them? 

Which are the chief penal institutions? Where are the leading 
charitable institutions located? What is done in the state to en¬ 
courage out-door life. 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

A Summary of Oklahoma’s Educational Progress. 

The Care of the Soldiers. 

The Treatment of Convicts. 

The Different Types of School Districts. 


CHAPTER XXII 


PAYING THE BILLS 

271. Taxation.—It requires a great deal of money to 
operate a government of any character, whether that 
government be national, state, county, or municipal. 
Since a government has no money of its own, it must neces¬ 
sarily obtain the money necessary for its maintenance and 
operation from the people. The system by which money 
•for governmental support is collected from the people is 
called the system of taxation. The money paid by the 
people to support their government is called taxes. 

To guard against oppressive and unjust taxation pro¬ 
visions are often contained in written constitutions setting 
forth the kind and amount of taxes that may be levied on 
the people. Both the Constitution of the United States and 
the constitution of Oklahoma clearly state how and to what 
extent the people may be taxed. Both federal and state 
officials are sworn to observe these constitutional pro¬ 
visions, and are subject to impeachment if they violate 
such provisions. Hence the people should respect and 
solemnly preserve the constitution, for it is the constitu¬ 
tion that protects them from excessive and illegal taxation. 

Why is taxation necessary? Why does the state constitution con¬ 
tain tax provisions? 

272. Limitations.—Under the Oklahoma constitution 
the total tax for all purposes shall not exceed thirty-one 
and one-half mills on the dollar valuation, unless the total 
amount shall be increased by a vote of the people. This 

497 


498 


Paying the Bills 

total levy is divided as follows: state tax, not more than 
three and one-half mills; county tax, not more than 
eight mills; township tax, not more than five mills; city 
or town tax, not more than ten mills; school district tax, 
not more than five mills, provided that by a vote of the 
people it can be increased to any amount not exceeding 
fifteen mills. This total tax is what is called an ad 
valorem tax. This means that it is levied on real and per¬ 
sonal property, according to value. Real property con¬ 
sists of lands and houses. Personal property consists of 
all movable property, such as merchandise, vehicles, and 
live stock. 

At a special election held October 2, 1923, the people 
ratified an amendment to the state constitution which 
provides a substantial increase in the state tax levy. 
The amendment empowers the State Excise Board to levy 
a tax that will produce at least $15.00 per pupil for all 
the pupils in the common schools of the state. The 
validity of the election at which this amendment was 
adopted has been attacked in the courts and at the time 
this text was written the case had not been decided. 

What is the legal limit of the tax rate for the state? for the county? 
the township? the city? the school district? How may rates be 
increased? 

273. Special Taxes.—Several special taxes are col¬ 
lected in addition to the ad valorem tax levied on real and 
personal property. A gross production tax amounting to 
three per cent of its value is levied on all the oil procured 
in the state. Motor-driven vehicles are taxed according 
to the horse-power of their motors. An income tax is 
levied on all annual incomes in excess of $3,500, and there 
is also an inheritance tax. Men between the ages of 
twenty-one and fifty years are subject to a poll tax or road 
tax, while cities usually levy what is called an occupation 
tax on certain occupations. 


Budgets 499 

274. Exemptions.—All property owned by the fed¬ 
eral, state, or county government, or by any other sub¬ 
division of government is exempt from taxation. Like¬ 
wise all property used for religious or educational pur¬ 
poses is exempt from taxation. Household goods and 
tools to the value of $100 when owned by the head of a 
household are exempt, while former Federal and Con¬ 
federate soldiers are allowed an exemption of $200.00. 

What special taxes and exemptions are there in Oklahoma? 

275. Assessment.—The first step in the process of 
tax collection is what is known as tax assessment. The 
work of assessing taxes is done by the county assessor. 
He visits each voting precinct of his county and assesses, 
that is, officially estimates, for the purpose of fixing the 
amount of taxes to be paid on all the personal and real 
property. Real property, however, is assessed for a two- 
year period, the assessment being made every odd- 
numbered year. 

The law of the state provides that property shall be as¬ 
sessed at its actual cash value. In practice, however, this 
is rarely done, most property being entered on the as¬ 
sessment books at much less than its fair valuation. 

276. Equalization.—It is naturally difficult for one 
assessor to make a fair and equitable assessment of all the 
property in an entire county. The property of one 
citizen is liable to be assessed relatively higher or lower 
than the property of another citizen. To prevent in¬ 
justice in this respect the law has provided that property 
assessments shall be equalized and this work of read¬ 
justment is done by the Board of County Commissioners 
sitting as a Board of Equalization. 

How does the state guard against injustice in the levying of taxes? 

277. Budgets.—Tax budgets are made up every year 


500 


Paying the Bills 

by the school district, city, town, and county officers. 
Each of the departments estimates how much it will be 
required to spend during the fiscal year and sets down 
this amount as its budget. The various budgets are then 
assembled and submitted to the County Excise Board, 
which is composed of the county clerk, county assessor, 
county attorney, county judge, county superintendent, and 
one member of the Board of County Commissioners. 
This board meets on the last Saturday of July. It ex¬ 
amines the different budgets submitted, revises the 
budgets if it sees fit to do so, and increases or reduces 
any item that it thinks needs revision. It may even 
eliminate any item in its entirety. 

278. Levies.—When the Excise Board has completed 
the annual budget and approved it, it levies a tax suf¬ 
ficient to raise the approved amount plus ten per cent 
for taxes that may for any reason not be collected. The 
certified levies are then taken by the county assessor 
who makes up the annual tax rolls, showing the name 
of each tax payer and how much tax is to be paid by him. 
The completed rolls are then delivered to the county 
treasurer, who collects the taxes. 

In what way is the tax levy made to fit the needs of the com¬ 
munity? 


279. Taxes Due.—Taxes are due November first, 
but if one-half of the taxes are paid prior to January 
first, the other half does not become due till June first 
thereafter. If taxes are not paid when due, they become 
“delinquent,” after which there is added to them a 
penalty of twelve per cent, which runs until the taxes and 
penalty accrued are paid. If delinquent taxes are not 
paid within the time specified by law, the county treasurer 
must advertise the property and sell it for the taxes. 


Duties of Citizens 


501 


280. State Levies.—When the County Equalization 
Board has equalized the tax assessments, it forwards a 
copy of its report to the State Equalization Board, which 
equalizes tax assessments among the counties just as the 
County Excise Board equalizes the assessments among citi¬ 
zens. The state levy is made by the State Excise Board, 
which consists of certain state officers. The law pro¬ 
vides that public service corporations shall be assessed 
by the State Excise Board. 

When are taxes due? What penalty is there for “delinquent” 
taxes? What is the work of the State Board of Equalization? 

281. New Excise Board.—The legislature in 1924 
enacted a law which provides for an excise board con¬ 
sisting of five private, tax-paying citizens, who shall 
not be public officials. This law, however, applies to 
Oklahoma County only. Proponents of this law con¬ 
tend that it is against economy and efficiency for the 
officers who spend the money to have authority to say 
how much they may spend and that the law will result 
in greater efficiency and economy. If this contention 
proves to be correct, it is probable that the legislature will 
presently extend the operations of the law to all the 
counties of the state. 

282. Duties of Citizens.—It is the legal and moral 
duty of every citizen to pay his taxes and pay them 
promptly. At the same time it is the duty of every 
citizen to study honestly and carefully every proposition 
that calls for the expenditure of public funds that he 
may know if the money is being honestly and carefully 
spent. It is his duty to acquiesce in the expenditure of 
public funds whenever there is a real need for such ex¬ 
penditure, but to insist on the elimination of all 
waste. Since it is natural for public officials to want to 
make the best showing possible, it follows that they 


502 


Paying the Bills 

are likely to be too liberal in spending public funds. 
Unless the tax payers themselves study the needs of 
government and insist on economy in government, ex¬ 
travagance is almost sure to increase from year to year. 

283. Increase in Government Costs.—For several 
years past there has been a marked increase in the cost 
of government in all its departments, federal, state, 
county, and municipal. This increase is partly due to an 
increase in official salaries caused by high prices incident 
to the Great War. It is partially due to a vast increase 
in the number of government officials and employees. But 
the greater part of the increase is due to a natural but 
rapid growth in the business of government. A great 
deal of work formerly done by private concerns and in¬ 
dividuals is now being done by government bureaus and 
commissions. This extension of government inevitably 
calls for the employment of more officials and forces the 
expenditure of larger sums of money for government 
maintenance.. Just how rapidly this expansion and en¬ 
largement has proceeded is shown by the fact that whereas 
thirty years ago only one man out of each thousand was 
an employee of government one out of each twenty is an 
employee of government in 1924. At the close of the 
Buchanan administration in 1861, the per capita cost of 
the federal government was $2.08. At the beginning of 
1924 the per capita cost of the federal government was 
estimated at approximately $30.00. 

Do you think the new Excise Board in Oklahoma County a good 
thing? Why? What are some reasons for the increase in govern¬ 
ment expenses? 


QUESTIONS 

Who pays the state’s bills? How is the money raised? What has 
the constitution to do with taxation? Why does the constitution 
limit the rate of taxation? 


Questions 


503 


What is real property? personal property? What special taxes 
lias Oklahoma? What is an ad valorem tax? What kinds of property 
are exempt from taxation? 

Wlio decides the amount of tax each person shall pay? To whom 
can you appeal if you think you are unjustly taxed? About how 
much above the annual budget is the annual levy? 

What happens when taxes are not paid? Has a citizen who fails 
to vote a right to object to high taxes? 

THEMES AND EXERCISES 

Taxation in the Federal Constitution. 

Taxation in the State Constitution. 

The School Tax. 

Special Taxes. 

Exemptions. 

The Different Steps in Raising Tax Money. 

The Duty of the Citizen. 

The Increased Cost of Government. 


CHAPTER XXIII 

THE CITIZEN 


284. Importance of the Citizen.—The citizen is the 
most important factor in the government of Oklahoma. 
It was by him that civilization was brought to Oklahoma; 
It was by him that government was established here. It 
is for his protection and well being that government is 
maintained in the state. Any scheme of government 
that ignores the natural and constitutional rights of the 
citizen is an evil thing and should speedily be changed by 
the voters. 

285. His Rights.—Every citizen has a right to the 
protection of the government. He has the right to pursue 
his chosen vocation in a peaceful way and to remain un¬ 
molested by other citizens. If others unlawfully interfere 
with his peace, quietude, and business activities, he has a 
right to expect the protection of his government working 
through its agencies for law enforcement. 

He has a right to a fair education provided by his state 
in schools maintained or sanctioned by the state. He 
has a right to worship the God of *his choice in the church 
of his choice after the manner of his choice. He has no 
right, however, to worship in such a manner as to mar the 
peace of the community or infringe on the rights of his 
neighbors. 

He has the right to remain free from legal molestation 
or arrest save in the case of crime. He has a right to 
be considered innocent of crime until he has been de¬ 
clared guilty of crime by a jury of his peers in court. 
In case of his arrest and trial, he has the right to be faced 
504 


His* Duties 


505 


by the witnesses testifying against him, the right to be 
represented by a lawyer, and the right to appeal to a 
higher court in case he is found guilty. 

He has a right to cast his vote on election day and help 
elect the officers of government. He has a right to as¬ 
semble in public meeting with his fellow citizens, so long 
as they assemble in a peaceful manner and for no unlawful 
purpose. He has a right freely to express his opinion of 
his government and public questions as long as his opinions 
are not wilfully false and harmful to the reputation of 



A BEAUTIFUL SCENE —CRATER LAKE. 


others. He has the right to read a press that is free and 
unrestrained by unjust government. 

Which of these rights do you think most important? Why? 

286. His Duties.—Every right that the citizen en¬ 
joys, however, carries with it a corresponding duty. 
These priceless rights have been bought by the sacrifices 
of many brave men and women and those rights must be 
protected and preserved at all costs. It is his duty to 
pay the taxes necessary to support the government that 
affords him protection. While peacefully pursuing his 








506 


The Citizen 


chosen calling, he must permit his neighbor to do the 
same. He must help support the schools that gave him an 
education. While enjoying the right of free worship and 
liberty of conscience, he must cheerfully grant the same 
right to others. He must refrain from falsely accusing 
or falsely causing the arrest of his neighbor; he must 
consider his neighbor innocent of crime until proved guilty; 
he must concede to his neighbor the right of trial by jury, 
the right of legal defense, and the right of appeal. 

In casting his own vote on election day he must concede 
the same right to his fellow citizen. He mast refrain 
from interfering with the peaceful assemblage of his 
fellow citizens. He must help preserve an honest opinion 
of government and public questions. He must cheerfully 
permit his neighbor to express an honest opinion of gov¬ 
ernment and public questions. He must help to maintain 
that liberty of the press which is essential to free and 
intelligent government. 

If danger menaces his government, it is his sacred 
duty to answer his country’s call and yield his life if 
necessary to save it from destruction. Time and again 
his forefathers have fought and many of them have died 
to win the priceless advantages he enjoys, and as a 
worthy son of such forebears he must be ready to pay 
the same price they paid if his country ever should re¬ 
quire a similar sacrifice. 

What do you consider the most important duties of a citizen? 
Why? 


QUESTIONS 

Can a state exist without citizens? Should a citizen who does 
not vote criticize the government? To how much free education 
has the Oklahoma citizen a right? 

Do you think a citizen gets more advantage from his rights than 
he pays for by his duties? 


Themes and Exercises 


507 


THEMES AND EXERCISES 
The Right to Vote. 

The Duty to Vote. 

The Education to Which I am Entitled. 

A Good Citizen’s Chief Duties. 


SUGGESTIONS 


Seventh and eighth grade pupils cannot be expected to get much 
benefit from college text-books on sociology or political science. Even 
Professor Young’s “New American Government,” while remarkably 
interesting and helpful for the teacher, would hardly be suitable for 
junior high school pupils. The same might be said of Beard’s “Amer¬ 
ican Government and Politics.” The teacher should also know such 
books as Howe’s “The Modern City and Its Problems” (Scribner) or 
Carney’s “Country Life and the Country School” (Row, Peterson). 
Read’s “Form and Functions of American Government” (World Book 
Co.), Ashley’s “The New Civics” (Macmillan), Magruder’s “Amer¬ 
ican Government” (Allyn and Bacon), Haskin’s “American Govern¬ 
ment” (Lippincott), and Beard’s “American City Government” 
(Century), are examples of books which pupils could use as well as 
teachers in the study of certain topics. Dawson’s “Organized Self- 
Government” (Holt) will also give some interesting suggestions. 

It is assumed that every teacher is thoroughly acquainted with the 
National Bureau of Education’s Bulletin No. 23 (1915) and Bulletin 
No. 28 (1916). “Lessons in Community and National Life,” issued 
from the same source, contain helpful discussions and questions. 
A teacher, too, should certainly know how to use the periodical in¬ 
dexes with which every good library should be provided, and thereby 
keep in touch with the constantly increasing number of valuable 
magazine articles. Such current magazines, by the way, as the 
Literary Digest, the Independent and Weekly Review, the Outlook, 
the World's Work, Current Opinion, Review of Reviews, the Survey, and 
the American City should be a constant source of inspiration and en¬ 
lightenment in a Community Civics course. 

Every class should have access to the World Almanac or some 
similar publication, to the Congressional Directory, and to the official 
handbook of the state, if one is published. Annual reports, special 
reports, and frequent bulletins are issued by a great many depart¬ 
ments in local and state governments and should be employed fre¬ 
quently. The Government Printing Office at Washington, through 
the Superintendent of Documents, issues a list of the bulletins pre¬ 
pared by national departments and bureaus. Some of these can be 

508 


Suggestions 509 

obtained free, while for others a small sum is charged to cover the 
cost of printing. 

The list of kinds of illustrative material which the members of the 
class may obtain themselves is almost endless. The school should 
furnish some means of preserving and classifying as much of such 
material as is of more than temporary interest. Pictures, ballots, 
maps, charts, legal documents, forms used in public business, and the 
like, are exceedingly useful in promoting both the interest and the 
comprehension of the class. 

Better even than reading a text-book or collecting information 
about the activities of somebody else is direct participation by the 
class in forms of community service. The work of the Boy Scouts 
and the Girl Scouts, the Junior Red Cross, local improvement clubs, 
thrift clubs, garden clubs, canning clubs, junior civic associations, 
and numerous other means of employing the gang spirit in the right 
direction will make civics work real and practical to pupils, parents, 
and the community in general. Some of these organizations publish 
literature of their own which the class will find useful. Frequently 
such reform organizations as the Bureau of Municipal Research, of 
New York, the National Conference for City Planning, Boston, and 
the National Municipal League, Philadelphia, will supply helpful 
information in their book of appeals. If time is available for an ex¬ 
tensive study of the chapters on transportation and wealth, there are 
all sorts of sources for illustrative material from railroads and business 
organizations. But do not let the pupils bother busy men with 
requests for literature which will not be used after it is obtained. 






. 

' 











APPENDIX 

CONSTITUTION 


OP THE 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

PREAMBLE 

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, pro¬ 
vide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and 
secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do 
ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of 
America. 

ARTICLE I. — LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 
Section 1. — Congress 

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con¬ 
gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a 
House of Representatives. 

Section 2. — House of Representatives 

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and 
the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for 
electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have at¬ 
tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a 
citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

1 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, accord¬ 
ing to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by add- 


1 Modified by Amendment XIV, Section 2, and Amendment XVI. 

1 



2 Appendix 

ing to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to 
service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three 
fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made 
within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in 
such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Repre¬ 
sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each 
State shall have at least one representative; and until such enu¬ 
meration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be en¬ 
titled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provi¬ 
dence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey 
four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia 
ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, 
the Executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill 
euch vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 


Section 3. — Senate 

l l. [The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six years; and each Senator shall have one vote.] 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into 
three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be 
vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class 
at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the 
expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every 
second year; 1 [and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other¬ 
wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the Execu¬ 
tive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next 
meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies]. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to 
the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that 
State for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of 
the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

1 Paragraph 1 and the last part of paragraph 2, in Section 3, have 
been replaced by Amendment XVII. 



Appendix 3 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a Presi¬ 
dent pro tempore , in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he 
shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeach¬ 
ments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or 
affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the 
Chief Justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted with¬ 
out the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further 
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy 
any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States: but 
the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to in¬ 
dictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

Section 4. — Elections and Sessions 

1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Sena¬ 
tors and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the 
Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law 
make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing 
Senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
shall by law appoint a different day. 

Section 5. — Government and Rules 

1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con¬ 
stitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn 
from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance 
of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as 
each House may provide. 

2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish 
its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of 
two thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their 
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members 
of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of 
those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
the conseht of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to 
any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 


4 


Appendix 


Section 6. — Privileges and Restrictions 

1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compen¬ 
sation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of 
the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest 
during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, 
and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech 
or debate in either House they shall not be questioned in any other 
place. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which 
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority 
of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emolu¬ 
ments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and 
no person holding any office under the United States shall be a 
member of either House during his continuance in office. 

Section 7. — Process of Law-making 

1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend¬ 
ments as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representa¬ 
tives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to 
the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, 
but if not he shall return it with his objections to that House in 
which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at 
large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such 
reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the 
bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other 
House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved 
by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such 
cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and 
nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill 
shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any 
bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays 
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall 
be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress 
by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not 
be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except 
on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the.President 
of the United States; and., oefore the same shall take effect, shall 


Appendix 5 

be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be re¬ 
passed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a 
bill. 


Section 8. — Powers Granted to Congress 1 

The Congress shall have power, — 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay 
the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare 
of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be 
uniform throughout the United States; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securi¬ 
ties and current coin of the United States; 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by secur¬ 
ing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right 
to their respective writings and discoveries; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
high seas, and offences against the law of nations; 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money 
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces; 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 
the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 

1 Additional powers of Congress are mentioned in Art. 7, Sect. 2, 
par. 3; Sect. 4, par. 1; Sect. 6, par. 1; Art. II, Sect. 1, pars. 4, 6; 
Art. Ill , Sect. 2, pars. 2,3; Sect. 3, par. 2; Art. IV, Sect. 1; Sect. 3, 
pars. 1, 2; Art. V; Amendment XIII , Sect. 2; Amendment XIV « 
Sects. 2, 3, 5; Amendment XV, Sect. 2; Amendment XVI. 



6 Appendix 

militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed 
in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respec¬ 
tively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of train¬ 
ing the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over 
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of 
particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat 
of the government of the United States; and to exercise like au¬ 
thority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature 
of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, 
magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings; — 
and 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 

Section 9. — Powers Denied to Congress 1 2 

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro¬ 
hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hun¬ 
dred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such impor¬ 
tation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus¬ 
pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public 
safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

2 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro¬ 
portion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to by 
taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
State. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce 
or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall 
vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obhged to enter, clear, or 
pay duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in conse¬ 
quence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement 


1 Amendments I to X are also, directly or indirectly, limitations 
on the powers of Congress. 

2 Modified by Amendment XVI. 



Appendix 

and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money 
shall be published from time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; 
and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, 
without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolu¬ 
ment, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, 
or foreign state. 

Section 10. — Powers Denied to the States 1 

1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera¬ 
tion ; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills 
of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in pay¬ 
ment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law 
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso¬ 
lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net 
produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or 
exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; 
and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the 
Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any 
duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter 
into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a for¬ 
eign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such 
imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. — EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 
Section 1. — The President: Election and Qualifications 

1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the 
United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term 
of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the 
same term, be elected as follows: — 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of Electors equal to the whole num¬ 
ber of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be 
entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or 
person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, 
shall be appointed an Elector. 


1 Supplemented by Amendments XIV and XV. 



$ 


Appendix 


1 3. [The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an in¬ 
habitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make 
a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for 
each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to 
the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the 
President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the 
presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the 
certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person hav¬ 
ing the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed ; 
and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an 
equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall 
immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no 
person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the 
said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of 
the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a 
choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the per¬ 
son having the greatest number of votes of the Electors shall be 
the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who 
have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the 
Vice-President.] 

4. Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors, 
and the day on which they shall give their voter.; which day shall 
be the same throughout the United States. 

5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall 
be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be 
eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the 
United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties 
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and 
the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, 
resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, 
declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer 
shall aot accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a Presi¬ 
dent shall be elected. 


1 Replaced by Amendment XII. 



Appendix 9 

7 . The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished 
during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall 
not receive within that period any other emolument from the 
United States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take 
the following oath or affirmation: — “I do solemnly swear (or 
affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the 
United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, 
and defend the Constitution of the United States.” 

Section 2. — Powers op the President 

1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, 
when called into the actual service of the United States; he may 
require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of 
the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties 
of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves 
and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases 
of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present 
concur; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and 
consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public 
ministers, and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other 
officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but 
the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior 
officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts 
of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section 3. — Duties op the President 

He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of 
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on 
extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, 
and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the 
time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he 
shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public 


io Appendix 

ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, 
and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

Section 4. — Removal of Officials 

The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United 
States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con¬ 
viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 


ARTICLE III.—JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 
Section 1. — Courts and Judges 

The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one 
Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the 
Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good 
behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a com¬ 
pensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance 
in office. 


Section 2. — Jurisdiction and Methods 

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, 
arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and 
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to 
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; 
to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies 
to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies 
between two or more States, between a State and citizens of an¬ 
other State, 1 between citizens of different States, between citizens 
of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, 
and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, 
citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme 
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before 
mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, 
both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regu¬ 
lations, as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said 
crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within 


1 Modified by Amendment XI. 



Appendix U 

any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress 
may by law have directed. 

t 

Section 3. — Treason 

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying 
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid 
and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession 
in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, 
or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 


ARTICLE IV.— STATE RELATIONS 
Section 1. — Public Acts 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And 
the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which 
such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 
thereof. 

Section 2. — Rights and Restrictions op Individuals 

1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and 
imijaunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having juris¬ 
diction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but 
shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or 
labor may be due. 

Section 3. — New States and National Possessions 

1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; 
but no New State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction 
of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of 
two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the 
Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. 


12 Appendix 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Con¬ 
stitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
United States, or of any particular State. 

Section 4. — Protection of States 

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union 
a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion; and on application of the Legislature, or of the 
Executive (when the Legislature can not be convened), against 
domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. —AMENDMENT 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on 
the application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several 
States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, 
in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of 
this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths 
of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as 
the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the 
Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior 
to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any man¬ 
ner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first 
article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of 
its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI.—AUTHORITY OF THE CONSTITUTION 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before 
the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which 
shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the 
supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be 
bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to 
the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and 
judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, 
shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; 


Appendix 13 

but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any 
office or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. — RATIFICATION 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be suffi¬ 
cient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States 
so ratifying the same. 

Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States 
present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our 
Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of 
the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. 
In Witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

G°: Washington, 

Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia , 
[and thirty-eight other delegates .J 


ARTICLES 

IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, 
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF 
AMERICA 

ARTICLE I. — PERSONAL FREEDOM * 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re¬ 
ligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the 
freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peace¬ 
ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of 
grievances. 

ARTICLE II. — KEEPING AND BEARING ARMS 1 

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. 

ARTICLE III. — QUARTERING TROOPS 1 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a 
manner to be prescribed by law. 


14 


Appendix 


ARTICLE IV. —SECURITY OF THE HOME» 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall 
not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, 
supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the 
place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V.—SECURITY AGAINST THE GOVERNMENT 1 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise in¬ 
famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand 
jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor 
shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in 
jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal 
case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property 
be taken for public use without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. —RIGHTS OF PERSONS ACCUSED OF 
CRIME i 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to 
a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and dis¬ 
trict wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district 
shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed 
of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with 
the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtain¬ 
ing witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for 
his defence. 

ARTICLE VII. —JURY TRIAL IN CIVIL CASES * 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, 
and no tact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any 
court of the United States, than according to the rules of the com¬ 
mon law. 

ARTICLE VIII. —BAIL AND PUNISHMENTS 1 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed^ 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 


15 


Appendix 

ARTICLE IX. —UNMENTIONED RIGHTS 1 2 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not 
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X. —POWERS RESERVED TO THE STATES 1 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu¬ 
tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States 
respectively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI. —SUITS AGAINST STATES 2 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by 
citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 

ARTICLE XII. — ELECTION OF PRESIDENT AND VICE- 
PRESIDENT 3 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they 
shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in 
distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President; and they 
shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of 
all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes 
for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed 
to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the 
President of the Senate; — the President of the Senate shall, in the 
presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the 
certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; — the person 
having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then 
from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three 
on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Represen- 

1 Amendments I to X were proposed by Congress in 1789. After 
ratification by the states they were proclaimed by the Secretary of 
State to be in force, 1791. 

2 Proposed, 1794, proclaimed in force, 1798. 

8 Proposed, 1803, proclaimed in force, 1804. 



16 Appendix 

tatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the repre¬ 
sentation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this pur¬ 
pose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the 
States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall 
act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional 
disability of the President. The person having the greatest num¬ 
ber of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, 
and if no person have a majority, t v en from the two highest num¬ 
bers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a 
quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole 
number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to 
the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of 
the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII. — SLAVERY 1 
Section 1. — Prohibition 

Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish¬ 
ment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their 
jurisdiction. 

Section 2. — Enforcement 

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV. —CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS OF 
CITIZENS 2 

Section 1. — Citizens and Their Rights 

All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject 
to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of 
the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce 
any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens 
of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of 

1 Proposed and proclaimed in force, 1865. 

> Proposed, 1866, proclaimed in force, 1868. 



Appendix 17 

life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to 
any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. — Apportionment of Representatives 

Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num¬ 
ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But 
when the right to vote at any election for the choice of Electors 
for President and Vice-President of the United States, Represen¬ 
tatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, 
or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the 
male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and 
citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for 
participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation 
therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of 
such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section 3. — Loss of Political Privileges 

No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or 
Elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or 
military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having 
previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer 
of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or 
as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con¬ 
stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection 
or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each House, 
remove such disability. 

Section 4. — Public Debt 

The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized 
by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States, nor any State 
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insur¬ 
rection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the 
loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, 
and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. — Enforcement 

The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis¬ 
lation, the provisions of this article. 


18 


Appendix 


ARTICLE XV. —RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE 1 
Section 1. — Negro Suffrage 

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. — Enforcement 

The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro¬ 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI —INCOME TAXES 2 * 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on in¬ 
comes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment 
among the several States, and without regard to any census or 
enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII —ELECTION OF SENATORS 3 

1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six 
years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each 
State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most 
numerous branch of the State legislatures. 

2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in 
the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs 
of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, that the Legislature of 
any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary 
appointment until the people fill the vacancies by election as the 
Legislature may direct. 

3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the 
election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as 
part of the Constitution. 

ARTICLE XVIII — INTOXICATING LIQUORS 4 
Section 1. — Prohibition 

After one year from the ratification of this article the manu¬ 
facture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the 

1 Proposed, 1869, proclaimed in force, 1870. 

2 Proposed, 1909, proclaimed in force, 1913. 

8 Proposed, 1912, proclaimed in force, 1913. 

4 Proposed. 1917, proclaimed in force, 1919. 



Appendix 


19 


importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the 
United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof, 
for beverage purposes, is hereby prohibited. 

Section 2. — Enforcement 

The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power 
to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Section 3. — Time of Ratification 

This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified 
as an amendment to the Constitution by the Legislatures of the 
several States as provided in the Constitution within seven years 
from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. 

ARTICLE XIX —EQUAL SUFFRAGE 1 
Section 1.—Voting Rights 

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account 
of sex. 


Section 2. — Enforcement 

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 


1 Proposed, 1913, proclaimed in force, 1920. 











INDEX 

(References are to pages ) 


Accidents: carelessness, 66, 68,75; 
railroads, 76-78. 

Administrative departments, 374- 
378. 

Advertising, billboard, 169, 170. 

Agriculture: colleges, 42; Depart¬ 
ments of, 42-47, 82,83,221, 376, 
377; farm loan, 43. 

Airplanes, 202, 203. 

Alien, 23. 

Ambassadors, 356, 371. 

Amendments, 340, 341; eigh¬ 
teenth, 55. 

Appeals, Circuit Court of, 316 

Appointments: by civil service, 
368, 369; by president, 370, 
371; senate’s consent, 360. 

Appropriations, 422, 423, 435,436. 

Arbitration, Court of, 91; defini¬ 
tion, 352; between nations, 352. 

Army, 87. 

Articles of Confederation, 333. 

Associated Press, 212. 

Attainder, bills of, 381. 

Attorney, 300, 390; attorney- 
general, 375. 

Auditor, 390, 435. 

Automobiles, 201, 202. 

Bail, 299. 

Ballots, kinds of, 402-404, 415, 
417; marking, 404, 405. 

Bank, 237. 

Barter, 235. 

Billboards, 169,170. 

Bills, 364-366. 

Blacklist, 246. 

Blind, care of, 278, 279. 

Blue Sky Laws, 80, 262. 

Borough, 386, 389. 

Boycott, 228. 


Boy Scouts, education of, 117; 
recreation, 160; moral stand¬ 
ards, 294, 295. 

Bribery, 401, 412. 

Bridges, 173-175. 

Budget: on farm, 251; in family, 
260; government, 434. 

Burgess, 22. 

Cabinet, work of, 373, 374; 
system, 343, 344. 

Canals, 189,190; use of, 204, 205; 
Panama, 204. 

Capital and wealth, 224; in indus¬ 
try, 225. 

Carelessness, cost of, 66-68. 

Carnegie, Andrew, 119. 

Caucus, 404. 

Census, 377. 

Charity: unwise, 273; private, 
274, 286; public, 276-278; 

associated, 274. 

Charter, 348. 

Checks and balances, 338. 

Child labor, 239-241. 

Church: benefit to community, 
6; schools, 114; English schools 
and, 112; work of, 291-293; 
and government, 293. 

Citizen: definition, 23; ways to 
become, 23; duties, 28,29, 92-94, 
124-127, 177-179, 312, 320- 
322, 396, 399, 440-445; health 
of, 61, 62. 

Cities: planning, 152; beautiful, 
166, 167; modern life in, 186; 
problems of, 348; classes of, 
348; government, 386,388,389; 
city manager, 389. 

Civic Center, 158, 159. 



22 


Index 


Civil Service Commission, 368, 
369. 

Coast Survey, 204. 

Collective bargaining, 228. 

Commerce, chamber of, 226; 
Department of, 377, 378. 

Commissioners, county, 387, 389; 
jury, 390 

Commission government, 388, 
389. 

Communication, early, 182; mod¬ 
ern, 183, 184. 

Community: definition, 3; kinds, 
5-13; beginning of, 8-13; growth 
13-20; rural and urban, 14; 
political, 20; head of, 22; 
citizen and, 28, 29; center, 
135, 136, 158, 159; planning, 
152-159. 

Congress, officers of, 360-362; 
members, 360; sessions, 362, 
363; salary, 363; committees, 
363, 364; quorum, 365; powers, 
378-382, 409. 

Conservation: definition, 251; 
principles of, 252-260. 

Constitution: definition, 22; mak¬ 
ing, 333; importance, 338, 339; 
parts of, 337-340; amendments, 
340, 341; state, 344-346. 

Continuation schools, 109, 110. 

Contracts, 80, 81. 

Conventions, 404, 407, 408. 

Cooperation, in everyday life, 
1-4, 48, 321; beginning of, 
10; in health, 31; food and, 40; 
in newspapers, 213. 

Copyrights, 119, 231. 

Corporations, 233. 

Correspondence schools, 111, 115. 

Council, city, 386, 389. 

County: relation to state, 345; 
government of, 387, 389, 390. 

Courts, duty of, 23; kinds, 298; 
guarantee of protection, 298, 
299; how they work, 299-301; 
officers, 312-318. 

Credit, 237. 

Crime, 296, 297. 

Criminals, 301-307. 

Daylight saving, 147. 

Deaf, 280, 297. 

Death Rates, 50, 67. 


Debt, 432, 433. 

Defectives, 271. 

Delinquents, 271. 

Democracy: definition, 78, 342; 
public schools and, 99. 

Dependents, 271. 

Direct legislation, 390, 393. 

Disease: attitude of people, 49; 
quarantine, 51; control of, 50- 
52; prevention 52-54; tuberculo¬ 
sis, 280; care of sick, 281, 282. 

District Attorney, 300. 

Draft, 88, 438. 

Education: reasons, 97, 98; com¬ 
missioner of, 100; boards of, 
100; national systems, 111-113; 
private means, 113-117; out¬ 
side agencies, 117; govern¬ 
ment’s part, 124-127; citizen’s 
part, 124-127. 

Elections, 401-402; of president, 
406-410; boards, 402; primary, 
404-405; time of, 405-406; 
non-partisan, 419. See polit¬ 
ical parties. 

Electric power, from water, 257- 
259; in street cars, 194, 195. 

Eminent domain, 431. 

Employment Bureaus, 228, 229. 

Enabling Act, 334. 

England: education in, 111, 
church of, 293; government, 
331,339. 

Executives, 320, 378. 

Ex post facto law, 381. 

Extradition, 84. 

Farm life: problems 248-250; 
improvements, 250, 251. 

Federal Reserve System, 237, 
238. 

Federal Trade Commission, 234, 
369. 

Feeble-minded, 283. 

Filibustering, 336. 

Fire: harm done, 67; prevention, 
68-71; putting out, 71-73; 
insurance, 73, 76. 

Food: source, 40, 41; cost of, 44; 
feeding city, 44-47; purity, 
46, 47; foods and drugs act, 47. 

Forests, 252. 

France, Education in, 112. 




Index 


23 


Franchise, 195, 214. 

Fraud, in business, 79, 80; in 
mails, 207. 

Full crew law, 239. 

Garbage, 58, 59. 

General Assembly, 382. 

Germany, education in, 112, 113. 

Gerrymander, 361. 

Government: definition, 7; own¬ 
ership of utilities, 197-200, 
234; promoting industry, 239; 
representative, 330-332; fed¬ 
eral, 332; departments, 337, 
forms of, 341-343; good, 394- 
396, 417-419. 

Habeas Corpus, 308. 

Health: essential to welfare, 27; 
conditions for, 31; in homes, 
49, 218; essentials for, 52-54; 
cleanliness, 58-60,179; schools, 
105. 

High school, 101, 112, 114; 
junior, 109. 

Highways: construction, 161-164; 
departments Of, 163: first, 
187-188. 

Home: a community, 4, 442; 
importance, 47, 48, 442. 

Home rule, 348. 

Homestead Act, 257. 

House of Representatives: mem¬ 
bers and officers, 361; duties, 
361, 362. 

Immigration, 217. 

Impeachment, 360, 361, 393, 394. 

Indeterminate sentence, 303. 

Indoor relief, 273. 

Industrial democracy, 247, 248. 

Industry: a community, 7; work¬ 
ers, care of, 55-58. 

Initiative, 392, 393. 

Insane, 282, 283. 

Interior, Department of, 376; 
Bureau of Education, 100; 
parks, 138, Bureau of Mines, 
253. 

Interstate Commerce Commis¬ 
sion, history, 196, 368; duties, 
191, 197, 199. 

Investment, 261, 262. 

Irrigation, 256. 


Judicial Department, 312-318. 
320. 

Jury, 298, 300. 

Kansas Industrial Court, 248. 

Labor: relation to capital, 245; on 
farm, 216-217, 248-250; child, 
239; woman, 240; Department 
of, 229, 378; in industry, 224, 
225; unions, 227, 228; mobility 
of, 216; convict, 305. 

Land: reclamation, 256, 434, 435; 
factor in production, 224. 

Laws: definition, 4, 21; purpose 
of, 21, 290-291, 356-357; on 
school attendance, 102-104; 
common, 290; statute, 290; 
unwritten, 357; how made, 
357-359, 364; enforcing, 366- 
369; testing, 378; state, 382- 
384. 

League of Nations, 91, 352-354. 

Leisure, 144-149. 

Legislative department: national, 
360-364; state, 382-384; local, 
386-388. 

Libraries: in schools, 107-108; 
traveling, 108; work of, 117; 
supporting, 118, 119; Con¬ 

gressional, 119, 120. 

Lobbying, 359. 

Lockout, 246. 

Logrolling, 389. 

Magazines, 122, 123. 

Majority rule, 325-329. 

Mayor, 22, 388. 

Migration, westward, 215, 216. 

Mines, Bureau of, 253. 

Minority rights, 329. 

Monarchy, 341. 

Money, 235-237. 

Money orders, 207. 

Monopoly: definition, 195; in 
public utilities, 195-197. 

Monroe Doctrine, 350. 

Moral standards: in community, 
289, 290; private agencies, 
294, 295; public agencies, 295, 
296; difference in, 308-310. 

Moving pictures, 142, 143, 145. 

Municipal theatre, 138, 139. 




24 


Index 


Naturalization, 24. 

Natural resources, 224. 

Navy, 87; Department of, 89, 
90 375 

Newspapers, 120, 122, 212, 359. 

New Sweden, 11-13. 

Noise, unnecessary, 175, 176. 

Opinion, public, 266. 

Panama Canal, 204. 

Parcel post, 207. 

Parks: services, 137, 138; na¬ 
tional, 138. 

Parkways, 167, 168. 

Parliament, English, 331, 343, 
344. 

Party, see political party. 

Patents, 231. 

Paupers, 272. 

Peace, international, 90, 91. 

Pensions, 232, 233, 277. 

Personal liberty, 310, 311. 

Planning, city, 152. 

Playgrounds, 133-136. 

Police, 84, 85. 

Police power, 27. 

Political parties: 410-411, 418; 
campaigns, 411; bad effects, 
413; utility, 414. 

“Pork barrel/’ 204. 

Poor, the, 272-278. 

Possessions, 336. 

Postal Savings bank, 207. 

Post office, 205-209, 375, 376. 

Poverty: causes, 272; relief, 272- 
275; insurance, 278. 

President: makes treaties, 351; 
approves bills, 365; civil ser¬ 
vice, 369; powers and duties, 
370-373; qualifications, 369, 
370; electing, 406-410; salary, 
370. 

Prices, 196, 199. 

Prisons, 302, 306. 

Probation, 303. 

Production, factors in, 224, 226. 

Profit sharing, 247. 

Prohibition: of liquor, 54, 55; 
of drugs, 55. 

Property, public, 223, 433, 434; 
private, 311, 312. 

Proportional representation, 416, 
417. 


Protection: essential to prosper¬ 
ity, 27; of health of workers, 
55-58, 239-241; life and pro¬ 
perty, 65-96; travelers’, 75-79; 
from foreign enemies, 87-90; 
public enemies, 91, 92. 

Public opinion, 266. 

Public Service Commission, 234. 

Quarantine, 51. 

Quorum, 365. 

Railroads: importance to com¬ 
munity, 18; and food, 44, 185; 
crossings, 76, 173; locating, 
172; growth, 190-193; public 
ownership, 197-199; problems, 
199. 

Recall, 394. 

Recreation: meaning, 130, 131; 
need, 131-133; places for, 133- 
138, 145-147; parks, 137-138; 
for the mind, 138; private 
agencies, 139, travel as, 141. 

Red Cross, 275. 

Reduction of garbage, 59. 

Referendum, 392, 393. 

Religion: definition, 291; and 
government, 293, 294; in 

schools, 295. 

Republic, 342, 343. 

Requisition, 301. 

Revenue, sources of, 426, 427, 
43i; in war, 438-440. See 
Taxes. 

Riots, 86, 87. 

Roads, 187, 188; construction, 
161-164. 

Rural communities: definition, 
14; sewage in, 39, 40; fires in, 
70; schools in, 101, 102, 107; 
recreation, 132; planning, 155, 
156; mail in, 205, 206; labor in, 
216,217. 

Sabotage, 246. 

Safety first, 58. 

Salvation Army, 275. 

Schools: train for community 
life, 5; a local affair, 20; for 
training soldiers and sailors 
89; why public, 98-100; or¬ 
ganization, 100; normal, 101, 
111; length of term, 103; con- 



Index 


25 


tinuation, 104, 109, 110; cost 
of, 104; buildings, 105, 106; 
utility of, 106-108; open air, 
106; library in, 147-148; what 
to teach, 108-111; junior high, 
109; private, 113-117; play¬ 
grounds in, 134; blind, 278, 
279; deaf, 279, 280. 

Secret Service, 374, 375. 

Selectmen, 22. 

Senate, debate in, 366; mem¬ 
bers and officers, 360; powers, 
360, 361; senatorial courtesy, 
371. 

Sewers, 38, 39. 

Short ballot, 415, 416. 

Single tax, 436, 437. 

Smoke, good health and, 34; 
consumers, 34,173; regulations, 
176,177. 

Socialism, 234. 

Spoils system, 368. 

State, powers of, 334, 381, 387; 
admission of, 334; constitu¬ 
tions, 344-346; subdivisions of, 
346, 347; law making, 382-384; 
administration, 384, 385. 

Streets: cleaning, 59, 60; con¬ 
structing, 159-161; lighting, 
164; railways, 173, 193, 195, 
214. 

Strikes, 86, 87, 228. 

Subsidy, 231. 

Supreme Court, state, 314; na¬ 
tion, 317. 

Sympathetic strike, 246. 

Tariff, protective, 229-231, 429, 
430. 

Taxes, school, 104; working out, 
163-164; immigration, 217; in¬ 
come, 242, 243; inheritance, 
242; kinds, 424, 425; good, 
425, 426; sources, 426-428, 431, 
438-440; means, 428-430; pro¬ 
posed changes, 436-438. 

Telegraph, 210, 211. 

Telephone, 209, 210. 


Tenements, 33. 

Territories, 335, 336. 

Town, 387, 389. 

Trade, board of, 226; conven¬ 
iences of, 235. 

Traffic: regulations, 76; police 
and, 84, 85. 

Traitors, 440. 

Tramps, 284. 

Transportation: water, 188-190; 
early, 182; modern conven¬ 
iences, 183; canal, 189, 190. 

Travel: early, 182; modern, 183; 
water, 188-190, 203-205; can¬ 
als, 189-190; train, 192, 193. 

Treasury Department, 374. 

True bill, 300. 

Trust, 234; companies, 238. 

Tuberculosis, 280. 

Union labor, 227, 228; and con¬ 
vict labor, 305. 

Universal Postal Union, 206. 

Unsightly places, 168, 169. 

Urban communities: definition, 
14; food, 44; deaths in, 50. 

Veto: by president, 365, 371; 
pocket, 365; by governor, 336. 

Voting: importance, 399, 400; 
qualifications, 400; methods of, 
401, 402; non-partisan, 419. 

War Department, 89, 375. 

Waste, removal of, 58. 

Water: supply, 35; purifying, 
35-37; distribution, 36, 37; 
power, 257, 258. 

Wealth: meaning, 221-223; prob¬ 
lems of, 241-245; right use of, 
251-260. 

Weather Bureau, 83, 229, 376. 

Welfare Work, 247. 

Wireless, 210, 211. 

Workmen’s Compensation, 232, 

Zoning, 171, 172. 

Zoo, 137. 




















































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